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[1] Research Scholar, Department of Law, Netaji Subhas University, jmshedpur, Jharkhand.[2] Assistant Professor, Department of Law, Netaji Subhas University, jmshedpur, Jharkhand[3] Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22 (HL).[4] Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22 (HL).[5] Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22 (HL)[6] Gilford Motor Co Ltd v Horne [1933] Ch 935; Jones v Lipman [1962] 1 WLR 832.[7] Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22 (HL).[8] Prest v Petrodel Resources Ltd [2013][9] The Companies Act of 2013[10] The Income Tax Act, 1961[11] Section 179 of Income Tax Act, 1961[12] The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002[13] Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999[14] State of UP v. Renusagar Power Co. (1988) 4 SCC 59 (India).[15] LIC of India v. Escorts Ltd. (1986) 1 SCC 264 (India).[16] Delhi Dev. Auth. v. Skipper Constr. Co., (1996) 4 SCC 622 (India)[17] Gilford Motor Co. Ltd. v. Horne [1933] Ch 935 (CA) (Eng.).[18] Balwant Rai Saluja v. Air India Ltd., (2014) 9 SCC 407 (India)[19] Vodafone Int'l Holdings B.V. v. Union of India, (2012) 6 SCC 613 (India).

[1]ALFONSO B. VASQEZ III MPA I, Capacity Building in Public Administration, available at: https://www.scribd.com/presentation/841193410/MPA-605-PRINCIPLES-IN-PUBLIC-ADMIN-CAPACITY-BUILDING (last visited on Sep 15, 2026).[2] Stuart S. Nagel, “Political Science and Public Administration as Key Elements in Policy Analysis,” In Improving Policy Analysis, 28-34 (SAGE Publications, 1980).[3] IV Al-Atti, “Public administration:  essence and definition” 6(8), Interregional Academy of Personnel Management 35–41 (2018).[4] O. Ziboreva, “Concepts and signs of public administration” 64 Uzhhorod National University Herald Series Law, 220–223 (2021).[5] Id. at 5.[6] J. Vrba, “Path to Vietnam’s welfare system sustainability” 8(1) International Journal of Public Administration Management and Economic Development 130–137 (2023).[7] Q. Huynh, “Street vendors in Vietnam:  Short cultural and economic insight” 1(2) International Journal of Culture and Education 13–17 (2023).[8] S. Panja, “Challenges and opportunities for public sector administration in India” 1(3) Journal of Management and Administration Provision 60–64 (2021).[9] R. Kumar, “Crisis of introduction of public administration as a discipline in Indian colleges and universities: A Study of Himachal Pradesh” 5(5) International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (2023).[10] S. Kühl, “Capacity Development as the Model for Development Aid Organizations” 40(3) Development and Change 551-577 (2009).[11] Katherine Bersch, Sergio Praca, et.al. (eds.), State Capacity and Bureaucratic Autonomy Within National States: Mapping the Archipelago of Excellence (Cambridge University Press, Brazil, 2013).[12]Ministry of Commerce and Industry, “Ease of Doing Business: Strengthening India’s Business Framework,” Press Information Bureau, June 7, 2026, available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseDetail.aspx?PRID=2269961&reg=1&lang=1 (last visited on Sep 15, 2026).[13]Supra note 1 at 2.[14]Ministry of Commerce and Industry, “Sadhana Saptah 2026 Strengthening Capacity Building for Citizen Centric Governance,” Press Information Bureau, April 04, 2026, available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2248940&reg=3&lang=2 (last visited on Sep, 14, 2026).[15]Id. at 5.[16]Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship, “Empowering India's Skill Ecosystem Government's Initiatives from Classroom to Enterprise,” Press Information Bureau, July 15, 2026, available at: https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2284941&reg=48&lang=2 (last visited Sep 12, 2026).[17]Capacity Building Commission, “Global Digital Capacity Building Alliance,” available at: https://cbc.gov.in/global-digital-capacity-building-alliance (last visited Sep 15, 2026).[18]Supra note 2 at 4.[19]Indian School of Public Policy, “Strengthening Public Policy and Governance Through Government Ministries,” available at: https://www.ispp.org.in/strengthening-public-policy-and-governance-through-government-ministries/ (last visited Sep 15, 2026).[20]Id at 9.[21]PolSci. Institute, “Understanding Public Policy: Definitions and Key Concepts,” Aug 8, 2025, available at: https://polsci.institute/public-policy-administration-india/understanding-public-policy-key-concepts/.[22]Id at 11.[23]Supra note 12 at 8.

[1] Raj Pal v. King-Emperor AIR 1927 Lah. 590[2] Sharma, A., & Waseem. (2024). BLASPHEMY LEGISLATION IN INDIA: SPOTLIGHT ON PUNJAB’S NEW LAW AND ITS IMPLICATIONS. NUJS Journal of Regulatory Studies., 9(2).[3] Nash, D. B. (2020). Blasphemy through British (post) colonial eyes. The Indian Criminal Code (pp. 66–82)[4] Nupur Sharma v. Union of India 2022 SCC 1553[5] Sharma, A., & Waseem. (2024). BLASPHEMY LEGISLATION IN INDIA: SPOTLIGHT ON PUNJAB’S NEW LAW AND ITS IMPLICATIONS. NUJS Journal of Regulatory Studies., 9(2).[6] Aditya Singh Deshwal v. Union of India & Ors. W.P.(CRL) No. 43/2022[7] Shreya Singhal v. Union of India is (2015) 5 SCC 1[8] ibid[9] 2025 INSC 410[10] Thakkar, R. (2025). Legal Responses to Online Hate Speech in India: Evaluating Section 66A and the Supreme Court’s Judgment in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India. Studies in Law and Justice, 4(3), 26–30[11] Sundar, S. S., Molina, M. D., & Cho, E. (2021). Seeing Is Believing: Is Video Modality More Powerful in Spreading Fake News via Online Messaging Apps? Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 26(6), 301–319

[1] Dr. Rutuja Purohit, Assistant Professor of Law at Shankarrao Chavan Law College and Ms. Gayatri Hedaoo, Student of Shankarrao Chavan Law College.[2] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2022 (2023); National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2023 (2024); National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2024 (2025)[3] Shaunak Sharma & Apporva Singh, Shifting Paradigm: An Analysis of Evolution of Rape Laws in India, 6(3) Int’l       J. L. Mgmt. & Human. 3690, 3693 (2023).[4] s Kumar & Tanaya Kamlakar, Deconstructing Anomalies: Rethinking Rape Laws Through Lens of Evolving Jurisprudence on Gender and Sexuality in India, ILI L. Rev. (Summer 2024)[5] Id.[6] Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, No. 45 of 2023, § 63 (India).[7] Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, No. 45, Acts of Parliament, 2023, § 63 (India)[8] Dube, supra note, at 18-22[9] Dipa Dube, Rape Laws in India (LexisNexis Butterworths 2008).[10] Tejashwini Mallick, An Extensive Study of Rape Laws in India, Manupatra (2021).[11] Soyonika Gogoi, Consent Matters: A Comparative Study of Rape Laws in India, UK and Canada, 5 (1) IJLMH Page 1395 - 1405 (2022), DOI: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.112670.[12] Basu Roy, S., & Ghosh Dastidar, S. (2018). Why do men rape? Understanding the determinants of rapes in India. Third World Quarterly, 39(8), 1435–1457. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2018.1460200[13] Gopi Shanker v. State of Rajasthan, 1966 S.C.R. 152 (Raj. H.C.)[14] Tukaram & Anr. v. State of Maharashtra, (1979) 2 S.C.C. 143[15] Mallick, supra note.[16] Sharma & Singh, supra note 12, at 3697.[17] Mukesh & Anr. v. State (NCT of Delhi), (2017) 6 SCC 1 (India).[18] Dube, supra note 1[19] Swati Kaushal & Harish Kumar Tiwari, Exploring the Relevance of Deterrence Punishment and Its Implications to Social Stability and Legal Sanction, 11 Russian L.J. 2023.[20] Ayush Tazi, Rape, Capital Punishment and Deterrence: An Analysis of India’s Penal Approach, 5 Burnished L.J. 1 (2024)[21] Swati Kaushal & Harish Kumar Tiwari, Exploring the Relevance of Deterrence Punishment and Its Implications to Social Stability and Legal Sanction[22] Prabal Kumar Sinha, Rape: An Assertion of Male Power, Authority and Dominant Over the Opposite Sex, IJRAR, June 2017, at 205–10[23] Ayush Tazi, Rape, Capital Punishment and Deterrence: An Analysis of India’s Penal Approach, 5 Burnished L.J. 1 (2024)[24] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2022 (2023); National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2023 (2024); National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2024 (2025).[25] Ayush Tazi, Rape, Capital Punishment and Deterrence: An Analysis of India’s Penal Approach, 5 Burnished L.J. 1 (2024)[26] Sudip Bhattacharya & Amarjeet Singh, Guardians of Consent: Enhancing Rape Prevention Through Social Control Mechanisms, 13 Dec. 2024, 10.3389/fsoc.2024.1487451, Frontiers in Sociology.[27] Chinmay Gaikwad, Four-Year-Old Girl Raped and Killed in Pune Village; Accused Held, The Hindu (May 2, 2026). Source: The Hindu https://share.google/iNynrDMe3ZNYd8KPT[28] Alim Shaikh, Pune Rape-Murder Case: Accused Acquitted Twice in Past for Similar Assaults, The Times of India (May 4, 2026). Pune rape-murder case: Accused acquitted twice in past for similar assaults | Pune News - The Times of India https://share.google/Os7h6LuuDViBjVdTt[29] Daniyal Zameer, Mohd Saifullah Khan & Zubair, A Critical Analysis of Indian Anti-Rape Laws in Brief Nexus to the Global Perspective, 4 Indian J. Legal Rev. 304, 306 (2024).[30] Id[31] Gogoi, supra note (2022), DOI: https://doij.org/10.10000/IJLMH.112670[32] Zameer et al., supra note 1, at 306[33] Gogoi, supra note, at 1395.[34] Daniyal Zameer, Mohd Saifullah Khan & Zubair, A Critical Analysis of Indian Anti-Rape Laws in Brief Nexus to the Global Perspective, 4 Indian J. Legal Rev. 304, 306 (2024).[35] Stefano Bergman & Sophia Thunberg, Rethinking Rape Laws Emphasizes the Central Role of Consent in Shaping Both Legl Frameworks and Public Understanding, 7 Int’l J. L. & Pub. Policy 55 (2025). https://doi.org/10.36079/lamintang.ijlapp-0702.822[36] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India (2010–2020), tbls.13A.1 & 6A.1, Ministry of Home Affairs, Gov’t of India, https://ncrb.gov.in[37] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India (annual reports for 2013–2023), Government of India, available at https://ncrb.gov.in.[38] Bachan Singh v. State of Punjab AIR 1982 SC 1325(India).[39] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India (2010), tbl.13A.2 & Crime in India (2023), tbl.6A.2, Ministry of Home Affairs, Gov’t of India, https://ncrb.gov.in.[40] Daniyal Zameer, Mohd Saifullah Khan & Zubair, A Critical Analysis of Indian Anti-Rape Laws in Brief Nexus to the Global Perspective, 4 Indian J. Legal Rev. 304, 306 (2024).[41] Ayush Tazi, Rape, Capital Punishment and Deterrence: An Analysis of India’s Penal Approach, 5 Burnished L.J. 1 (2024)

[1] Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980) 3 SCC 625.[2] AIR 1967 SC 1643.[3] AIR 1973 SC 1461.[4] (1978) 1 SCC 248.[5] James Bryce, I Modern Democracies 272 (The Macmillan Company, New York, 1921).[6] AIR 1973 SC 1461.[7] Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (2017) 10 SCC 1.[8] M.P. Jain, Indian Constitutional Law 177 (LexisNexis, New Delhi, 8th edn., 2018).[9] Information Technology Act 2000, India, available at: https://dictionary.cambridge.org (last visited on May 11, 2026).[10] D.D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India 118 (LexisNexis, New Delhi, 23rd edn., 2015).[11] Dr. J.N. Pandey, Constitutional Law of India 74 (Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 58th edn., 2021).[12] Ibid.[13] Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980) 3 SCC 625.[14] Jahnavi Sindhu, “A Responsive Theory of Judicial Review-A View from India” 34 National Law School of India Review 72 (2023).[15] Supra note 8 at 177.[16] 5 U.S. 137 (1803).[17] Dr. Sanjay Ambekar, “The Doctrine of Judicial Review: A Critical Examination” 9 IRE Journals 414 (2025).[18] Supra note 17 at 414.[19] Id. at 415.[20] AIR 1950 SC 27.[21] AIR 1951 SC 226.[22] AIR 1967 SC 1643.[23] AIR 1973 SC 1461.[24] Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980) 3 SCC 625.[25] (1978) 1 SCC 248.[26] Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (2017) 10 SCC 1.[27] H.M. Seervai, Constitutional Law of India 133 (Universal Law Publishing, Nagpur, 4th edn., 2015).[28] The Constitution of India, art. 13(1).[29] Information Technology Act 2000, India, available at: scribd.com (last visited on May 11, 2026).[30] The Constitution of India, art. 32(2).[31] Justice Dr. B S Chauhan, “Judicial Review” available at: https://nja.gov.in (last visited on May 11, 2026).[32] The Constitution of India, art. 226(1).[33] K. Shiv Sidharth, “Judicial Governance in India and its implications for Social Justice, Change and Development” 3 CLR 87 (2022).[34] M.P. Jain, Indian Constitutional Law 180 (LexisNexis, New Delhi, 8th edn., 2018).[35] Dr. Banamali Barik, “Judicial Review in India: An analysis of the Constitutionality of Laws” available at: voiceoflaw.in (last visited on May 11, 2026).[36] AIR 1950 SC 27.[37] Bhikaji Narayan v. State of M.P., AIR 1955 SC 781.[38] Muthiah M. Ct. v. Commissioner of Income Tax, AIR 1955 SC 146.[39]Shubhangi Upmanya and Gautam Badlani, “Article 13 of the Indian Constitution” available at: https://blog.ipleaders.in (last visited on May 12, 2026).[40] K.C. Gajapati Narayan Deo v. State of Orissa, AIR 1953 SC 375.[41] State of Bombay v. F.N. Balsara, AIR 1951 SC 318.[42] AIR 1973 SC 1461.[43] (1978) 1 SCC 248.[44] (1997) 6 SCC 241.[45] (1994) 2 SCR 644.[46] AIR 2018 SC 4321.[47] Dr. Sanjay Ambekar, “The Doctrine of Judicial Review: A Critical Examination” 9 IRE Journals 416 (2025).[48] AIR 1976 SC 1207.[49] (1978) 1 SCC 248.[50] Rajeev Suri v. Delhi Development Authority (2021) SCC Online SC 7.[51] AIR 2020 SC 1308.[52] Supra note 47 at 416.[53] Ibid.[54] Id. at 417.[55] M. Asad Malik, “Changing Dimensions of Federalism in India: An Appraisal” 2 ILI Law Review 89 (2019).[56] D.D. Basu, Introduction to the Constitution of India 122 (LexisNexis, New Delhi, 23rd edn., 2015).[57] Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, AIR 1973 SC 1461.[58] Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, (1978) 1 SCC 248.[59] Information Technology Act 2000, India, available at: https://www.acton.org (last visited on May 12, 2026). 

[1]Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, No. 46 of 2023 [hereinafter BNSS], § 35 (India); Arnesh Kumar v. State of Bihar, (2014) 8 SCC 273 (India).[2] Joginder Kumar v. State of Uttar Pradesh, (1994) 4 SCC 260 (India); Arnesh Kumar, (2014) 8 SCC 273.[3] BNSS, commencement notification (bringing the Sanhita into force on July 1, 2024).[4] BNSS, § 35(1)(b).[5] Id. § 35(1)(b)(i)–(v).[6] Satender Kumar Antil v. Central Bureau of Investigation, (2022) 10 SCC 51 (India).[7] BNSS, § 35(3).[8] Id. § 35(4)–(6).[9] Joginder Kumar, (1994) 4 SCC 260.[10]D.K. Basu v. State of West Bengal, (1997) 1 SCC 416 (India).[11] Arnesh Kumar, (2014) 8 SCC 273.[12] Siddharth v. State of Uttar Pradesh, (2022) 1 SCC 676 (India).[13] Satender Kumar Antil, (2022) 10 SCC 51.[14] Pankaj Bansal v. Union of India, (2024) 7 SCC 576 (India).[15] Prabir Purkayastha v. State (NCT of Delhi), (2024) 7 SCC 576 (India).[16] Constitution of India 1950, art 14; E P Royappa v State of Tamil Nadu (1974) 4 SCC 3 (India).[17] Constitution of India 1950, art 21.[18] Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, (1978) 1 SCC 248 (India).[19] Constitution of India 1950, art 22(1)–(2).[20] D.K. Basu, (1997) 1 SCC 416.[21] BNSS, §§ 47–49, 53, 56.[22] Code of Criminal Procedure, No. 2 of 1974, §§ 41, 41A (India); BNSS, § 35.