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[1] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (OHCHR).[2] OHCHR, ‘About the Covenants: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’.[3] OHCHR, ‘What are human rights?’ (OHCHR, accessed 17 September 2026).[4] OHCHR, ‘Human Rights Mechanisms’ (OHCHR).[5] OHCHR, ‘Human Rights Mechanisms’ (noting that the Human Rights Council is composed of 47 elected UN Member States).[6] United Nations Treaty Collection, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, status information and treaty text.[7] OHCHR, Human Rights: A Practical Guide / introductory materials on state responsibilities to respect, protect and fulfil rights.[8] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, arts 2 and 26; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, arts 2 and 3.[9] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, arts 6–27.[10] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (OHCHR).[1]      International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966, art 2 and substantive provisions.[11] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (OHCHR).[2]     OHCHR, materials on business and human rights and corporate responsibility to respect human rights.[12] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’ (OHCHR).[1]                 OHCHR, ‘About the Covenants: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’.[3]      International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966, art 17.

[1] The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, s 2(47).[2] Grand View Research, Global Cosmeceuticals Market Report 2023–2030 (2023).[3] The Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940[4] The Patents Act, 1970, ss 2(1)(j), 2(ja), 3(d) and 3(e).[5] The Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940[6] The Drugs and Cosmetics Rules, 1945, as amended.[7] The Patents Act, 1970, s 3(e).[8]Indian Patent Office, Patent Prosecution Guidelines: Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Formulations (2020).[9] Novartis AG v Union of India & Others, (2013) 6 SCC 1.[10] The Trade Marks Act, 1999, s 9.[11] The Consumer Protection Act, 2019[12] Colgate-Palmolive Co v Hindustan Lever Ltd, 2008 (12) SCC 305.[13] Indian Society of Cosmetic Chemists, Cosmeceutical Industry Survey: Patent, Trademark and Trade Secret Protection Practices (2019).[14] European Commission, Cosmetics Regulation Guidance: Claim Substantiation and Safety Assessment (2019).[15] ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN Harmonized Cosmetics Regulatory Framework (2018).

[1] Research Scholar, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar.[2] Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar.[3] CESARE LOMBROSO & WILLIAM FERRERO, THE FEMALE OFFENDER (1895).[4] EDWIN H. SUTHERLAND, PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINOLOGY (1939).[5] MEDA CHESNEY-LIND, THE FEMALE OFFENDER: GIRLS, WOMEN, AND CRIME (1997).[6] R.W. CONNELL, MASCULINITIES (1995).[7] See James Messerschmidt, Masculinities and Crime: Critique and Reconceptualization, 2 THEORETICAL CRIMINOLOGY 85 (1998).[8] See Michael Flood, Men, Sex, and Domestic Violence, 12 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 295 (2006).[9] See Ngaire Naffine, FEMINISM AND CRIMINOLOGY (1997).[10] See Kathleen Daly, Women’s Pathways to Felony Court: Feminist Theories of Lawbreaking and Problems of Representation, 2 S. CAL. REV. L. & WOMEN’S STUD. 11 (1992).[11] Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex, 1989 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 139.[12] See Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen & Stephanie Covington, Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders (2003).[13] See Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen & Stephanie Covington, Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders (2003).[14] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13; Convention on the Rights of the Child, Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3.[15] CESARE LOMBROSO & WILLIAM FERRERO, THE FEMALE OFFENDER (1895).[16] EDWIN H. SUTHERLAND, PRINCIPLES OF CRIMINOLOGY (1939).[17] MEDA CHESNEY-LIND, THE FEMALE OFFENDER: GIRLS, WOMEN, AND CRIME (1997).[18] Kathleen Daly, Women’s Pathways to Felony Court: Feminist Theories of Lawbreaking and Problems of Representation, 2 S. CAL. REV. L. & WOMEN’S STUD. 11 (1992).[19] MEDA CHESNEY-LIND & LISA PASKO, THE FEMALE OFFENDER (2d ed. 2004).[20] Kathleen Daly, Women’s Pathways to Felony Court: Feminist Theories of Lawbreaking and Problems of Representation, 2 S. CAL. REV. L. & WOMEN’S STUD. 11 (1992).[21] MEDA CHESNEY-LIND & LISA PASKO, THE FEMALE OFFENDER (2d ed. 2004).[22] Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender and the Legal System, 22 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 40 (1982).[23] NGAIRE NAFFINE, FEMINISM AND CRIMINOLOGY (1997).[24] Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex, 1989 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 139.[25] Danielle Keats Citron, HATE CRIMES IN CYBERSPACE (2014).[26] Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen & Stephanie Covington, Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research[27] Ratna Kapur, Gender Neutrality in Indian Law: A Critical Appraisal, 45 J. INDIAN L. INST. 23 (2003).[28] Meda Chesney-Lind, The Female Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).[29] Carol Smart, Feminism and the Power of Law (1989).[30] Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex, 1989 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 139.[31] Barbara Bloom, Barbara Owen & Stephanie Covington, Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, and Guiding Principles for Women Offenders (2003).[32] Michael Flood, Men, Sex, and Domestic Violence, 12 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN 295 (2006).[33] Stephen Tomsen, Masculinities, Crime, and Criminal Justice, in OXFORD HANDBOOK OF CRIMINOLOGY (2016).[34] NGAIRE NAFFINE, FEMINISM AND CRIMINOLOGY (1997).[35] JAMES W. MESSERSCHMIDT, MASCULINITIES AND CRIME (1993).[36] Flavia Agnes, Dalit Women and Sexual Violence: Justice Denied, 47 ECON. & POL. WKLY. 12 (2012).[37] Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender and the Legal System, 22 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 40 (1982).[38] U.S. Dep’t of Justice, Identifying and Preventing Gender Bias in Law Enforcement Response to Sexual Assault and Domestic Violence (2015).[39] Carol Smart, FEMINISM AND THE POWER OF LAW (1989).[40] Cassia Spohn, Gender and Sentencing of Drug Offenders, 24 CRIM. JUST. POL’Y REV. 285 (2013).[41] Ngaire Naffine, FEMINISM AND CRIMINOLOGY (1997).[42] Cassia Spohn, Thirty Years of Sentencing Disparity Research, 3 JUST. Q. 231 (2015).[43] R. v. Sharma, [2022] 3 S.C.R. 1 (Can.).[44] Dana M. Britton, Feminism in Criminology: Engendering the Discipline, 571 ANNALS AM. ACAD. POL. & SOC. SCI. 57 (2000).[45] UNODC, Global Study on Homicide (2023).[46] Global Justice 50/50 Report, Gender Justice Policies in International Organizations (2026).[47] Mukesh & Anr. v. State for NCT of Delhi & Ors., (2017) 6 SCC 1 (India).[48] Flavia Agnes, Dalit Women and Sexual Violence: Justice Denied, 47 ECON. & POL. WKLY. 12 (2012).[49] Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, No. 56 of 2000, INDIA CODE.[50] Meda Chesney-Lind, The Female Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).[51] Sneha Priyadarshani & Jyoti Yadav, Gender and Crime: Exploring Patterns and Implications, IJCRT (2024).[52] Hilary Allen, Justice Unbalanced: Gender and the Legal System, 22 BRIT. J. CRIMINOLOGY 40 (1982).[53] R. v. Sharma, [2022] 3 S.C.R. 1 (Can.).[54] S. v. M, 2007 (2) SA 539 (CC) (S. Afr.).

[1] Research Scholar, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar[2] Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar[3] Public Gambling Act, No. 3 of 1867, § 3.[4] State of Bombay v. R.M.D. Chamarbaugwala, AIR 1957 SC 699.[5] Consumer Protection Act, No. 35 of 2019, § 2(47)[6] Indian Penal Code, No. 45 of 1860, §§ 415–420.[7] Telangana Gaming (Amendment) Act, 2017.[8] UK Gambling Commission, Licensing Conditions and Codes of Practice (2020).[9] Advertising Standards Council of India, Guidelines for Online Gaming Advertisements (2022).[10] INDIA CONST. Seventh Schedule, List II, Entry 34.[11] Nagaland Prohibition of Gambling and Promotion and Regulation of Online Games of Skill Act, 2016; Sikkim Online Gaming (Regulation) Act, 2008.[12] INDIA CONST. art. 19(1)(g).[13] Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, Draft Online Gaming Rules, 2023.[14] KPMG, Online Gaming in India: The Next Frontier (2021).[15] Public Gambling Act, No. 3 of 1867, § 3.[16] INDIA CONST. Seventh Schedule, List II, Entry 34.[17] Nagaland Prohibition of Gambling and Promotion and Regulation of Online Games of Skill Act, 2016; Sikkim Online Gaming (Regulation) Act, 2008; Telangana Gaming (Amendment) Act, 2017; Tamil Nadu Gaming Ordinance, 2021.[18] LiveLaw, Skill vs Chance in Online Gaming (2025).[19] bhishek Gandhi, Cyber Frauds in Online Gaming and Betting Platforms: Legal Loopholes and Regulatory Gaps in India (Aug. 4, 2025).[20] Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, §§ 43, 66C, 66D, 72.[21] Observer Research Foundation, Building a Regulatory Framework for Online Gaming in India (Mar. 27, 2026).[22] Consumer Protection Act, No. 35 of 2019[23] Foreign Exchange Management Act, No. 42 of 1999.[24] Law Communicants, Online Gaming Addiction, Suicides, and Public Health: Supreme Court Ruling (June 4, 2026).[25] Varun Gumber v. Union Territory of Chandigarh, 2017 SCC OnLine P&H 5372.[26] Law Communicants, Online Gaming Addiction, Suicides, and Public Health: Supreme Court Ruling (June 4, 2026).[27] World Health Organization, International Classification of Diseases (2019).[28] Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025.[29] Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025.[30] UK Gambling Commission, Licensing Conditions and Codes of Practice (2020).[31] State of Bombay v. R.M.D. Chamarbaugwala, AIR 1957 SC 699.[32] State of Andhra Pradesh v. K. Satyanarayana, AIR 1968 SC 825.[33] Varun Gumber v. Union Territory of Chandigarh, 2017 SCC OnLine P&H 5372.[34] All India Gaming Federation v. State of Tamil Nadu, Madras High Court, 2023.[35] Directorate General of GST Intelligence v. Gameskraft Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Supreme Court of India, 2026.[36] State of Tamil Nadu v. Junglee Games India Pvt. Ltd., Civil Appeal Nos. 6124–6131/2023 (SC, May 27, 2026).

[1] Research Scholar, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar.[2] Dean, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar[3] The Indian Contract Act, No. 9 of 1872, § 10.[4] Consumer Protection Act, No. 35 of 2019, § 17.[5] Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, Rule 4.[6] Trimex International FZE Ltd. v. Vedanta Aluminium Ltd., (2010) 3 SCC 1 (India).[7] Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 Oct. 2011 on Consumer Rights.[8] Specht v. Netscape Communications Corp., 306 F.3d 17 (2d Cir. 2002).[9] Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, § 10A.[10] Mark A. Lemley, Terms of Use, 91 Minn. L. Rev. 459 (2006).[11] Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, § 10A.[12] Id. § 3.[13] Consumer Protection Act, No. 35 of 2019, § 2(7).[14] Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, Rule 4 & 5.[15] LIC of India v. Consumer Educ. & Research Ctr., (1995) 5 SCC 482 (India).[16] rimex Int’l FZE Ltd. v. Vedanta Aluminium Ltd., (2010) 3 SCC 1 (India).[17] SpiceJet Ltd. v. Ranju Aery, 2017 SCC OnLine Del 10934 (India).[18]  Arunesh Mathur et al., Dark Patterns at Scale: Findings from a Crawl of 11K Shopping Websites, 2 Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interaction 1 (2019).[19]  Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 Oct. 2011 on Consumer Rights, 2011 O.J. (L 304) 64.[20] Specht v. Netscape Commc’ns Corp., 306 F.3d 17 (2d Cir. 2002).[21]  Soc’y of Lloyd’s v. Lee, 2006 SCC OnLine Del 1237 (India).[22] LIC of India v. Consumer Educ. & Research Ctr., (1995) 5 SCC 482 (India).[23] Central Inland Water Transp. Corp. v. Brojo Nath Ganguly, (1986) 3 SCC 156 (India).[24] Delhi Transp. Corp. v. DTC Mazdoor Congress, 1991 Supp (1) SCC 600 (India).[25] SpiceJet Ltd. v. Ranju Aery, 2017 SCC OnLine Del 10934 (India).[26] Specht v. Netscape Commc’ns Corp., 306 F.3d 17 (2d Cir. 2002).[27] Arunesh Mathur et al., Dark Patterns at Scale: Findings from a Crawl of 11K Shopping Websites, 2 Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interaction 1 (2019).[28] Consumer Protection Act, No. 35 of 2019, §§ 2(7), 17.[29] Pratibha Jain, E-Commerce and Consumer Protection in India, 12 J. Indian L. & Soc’y 45 (2021).[30] Id.[31] Arunesh Mathur et al., Dark Patterns at Scale: Findings from a Crawl of 11K Shopping Websites, 2 Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interaction 1 (2019).

[1] Research Scholar, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar[2] Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar[3] Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, INDIA CODE (2000).[4] Information Technology (Amendment) Act, No. 10 of 2009, INDIA CODE (2009).[5]  Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1 (India).[6] Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee Report, Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (2018).[7] Digital Personal Data Protection Act, No. 22 of 2023, INDIA CODE (2023).[8] Id. § 2(11).[9] Id. §§ 5–9.[10] Id. § 17.[11] Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council (General Data Protection Regulation).[12]  Id. arts. 5–7.[13] National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre, Guidelines on Cybersecurity (2024).[14] Modern Dental College & Research Centre v. State of Madhya Pradesh, (2016) 7 SCC 353 (India).[15] UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce, U.N. Doc. A/RES/51/162 (1996).[16] IT Act, supra note 1, §§ 3–6, 65,66.[17] Information Technology (Amendment) Act, No. 10 of 2009, INDIA CODE (2009).[18] Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, (2015) 5 SCC 1 (India).[19] Justice K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India, (2017) 10 SCC 1 (India).[20] Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee Report, A Free and Fair Digital Economy: Protecting Privacy, Empowering Indians, Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology (2018).[21] National Cyber Security Policy, Ministry of Communications & Information Technology (2013).[22] Digital Personal Data Protection Act, No. 22 of 2023, INDIA CODE (2023).[23] Id. § 2(11).[24] Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council (General Data Protection Regulation).[25] California Consumer Privacy Act, CAL. CIV. CODE §§ 1798.100–1798.199 (2018); Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (2021).[26] California Consumer Privacy Act, CAL. CIV. CODE §§ 1798.100–1798.199 (2018); Personal Information Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (2021).[27] Modern Dental College & Research Centre v. State of Madhya Pradesh, (2016) 7 SCC 353 (India).[28] Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council (General Data Protection Regulation), arts. 51–59.[29] Modern Dental College & Research Centre v. State of Madhya Pradesh, (2016) 7 SCC 353 (India).[30] National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre, Guidelines on Cybersecurity (2024).[31] Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, Council of Europe Treaty No. 185 (2001).

[1] Research Scholar, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar.[2] Assistant Professor, Faculty of Law, Tantia University, Sri Ganganagar.[3] Reserve Bank of India, Report on Banking Frauds 2024–25 (2025).[4] Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In), Annual Cybersecurity Report 2023 (2023).[5] The Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, No. 54 of 2002, India Code (2002).[6] R.K. Gupta, Banking Law and Practice in India 212 (3d ed. 2019).[7] Press Trust of India, Digital Loan Recovery Frauds Rise in India, The Hindu (Jan. 12, 2023).[8] Mardia Chemicals Ltd. v. Union of India, (2004) 4 SCC 311 (India).[9] The Information Technology Act, No. 21 of 2000, India Code (2000).[10] Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council (General Data Protection Regulation).[11] Financial Conduct Authority, Cybersecurity Standards for Financial Institutions (2022).[12] Reserve Bank of India, Cybersecurity Framework for Banks (2016).[13] CERT-In, Cyber Security Exercise for Banking Sector under G20 Presidency (2023).[14] NITI Aayog, Blockchain: The India Strategy (2020).[15] Seema Modi, Vanshika Premani & Mandeep Kaur, A Critical Analysis of E-Banking Frauds and Laws in India, Int’l J. Health Sci. 5(S2), 931 (2021).[16] Sumit Mishra & Rajeev Kumar Singh, E-Banking Frauds in India: Critical Analysis, Int’l J. Res. & Analytical Reviews 12(3), 769 (2025).[17] Mardia Chemicals Ltd. v. Union of India, (2004) 4 SCC 311 (India).[18] Nahar Industrial Enterprises Ltd. v. Hong Kong & Shanghai Banking Corp., (2009) 8 SCC 646 (India).[19] Indian Overseas Bank v. Radhey Infra Solutions, (2025 INSC 765); Bank of India v. Sri Nangli Rice Mills Pvt. Ltd., (2025 INSC 95).[20] R.K. Gupta, Banking Law and Practice in India 212 (3d ed. 2019).[21] Ajay Dayalji Patel, Emerging Trends and Legal Responses to Cyber Frauds in India: A Doctrinal Analysis, JETIR (2024[22] Sowmya B.M., Digital Banking Fraud and Regulatory Liability in India: Towards a Unified Consumer-Centric Legal Framework (2023).[23] Reserve Bank of India, Digital Fraud Compensation Framework (2026).[24] CERT-In, Digital Threat Report 2024 for BFSI Sector (2024).[25] Press Information Bureau, CERT-In: India’s Frontline Defender Against Cyber Threats (Jan. 23, 2026).[26]  NCRB, Crime in India Report 2023 (2023).[27] Anshuli Singh, Digital Banking and Cybersecurity Laws in India: Emerging Legal Challenges (2025).[28] The Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, No. 54 of 2002, India Code (2002).[29] R.K. Gupta, Banking Law and Practice in India 212 (3d ed. 2019).[30] Mardia Chemicals Ltd. v. Union of India, (2004) 4 SCC 311 (India). And Indian Overseas Bank v. Radhey Infra Solutions, (2025 INSC 765).[31] Reserve Bank of India, Digital Fraud Compensation Framework (2026).[32] Suresh Chandra Singh Negi v. Bank of Baroda, Writ-C No. 24192 of 2022 (All. HC, July 17, 2025).[33] Jaiprakash Kulkarni v. Banking Ombudsman, 2024 SCC OnLine Bom 1666.[34] Ajay Dayalji Patel, Emerging Trends and Legal Responses to Cyber Frauds in India (2024).

Ayush Kumar Prajapati. “Criminalisation of Marital Rape: Bodily Autonomy Matters of Women in Matrimonial Relationship.” White Black Legal – International Law Journal, Volume 4, Issue 1

[1] Chintan Chandrachud, Balanced Constitutionalism Courts And Legislatures In India And The United Kingdom 5 (Oxford University Press 2017)[2] P. ISHWARA BHAT, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS A STUDY OF THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIP 17 (Eastern Law House 2004)[3] Manoj Narula v. Union of India, (2014) 9 SCC 1[4] Indian Young Lawyers Association & Ors v. The State of Kerala, (2019) 11 SCC 1[5] ibid

Oghenehoro Evi Eni. “CONNECTICUT JOINS THE INTERSTATE MEDICAL LICENSURE COMPACT: WHAT IT MEANS FOR CROSS BORDER TELEHEALTH IN 2026.” White Black Legal – International Law Journal, Volume 4, Issue 1