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[1]M K Ranjitsinh v Union of India 2024 INSC 280 (SC) paras 1-3.[2]ibid para 5.[3]ibid para 27.[4]ibid para 7.[5]ibid paras 61-68.[6]ibid paras 10-35.[7]ibid para 19.[8]ibid para 20.[9]ibid paras 21-23, citing M C Mehta v Kamal Nath (2000) 6 SCC 213; Virender Gaur v State of Haryana (1995) 2 SCC 577; Karnataka Industrial Areas Development Board v C Kenchappa (2006) 6 SCC 371; and Bombay Dyeing & Manufacturing Co Ltd (3) v Bombay Environmental Action Group (2006) 3 SCC 434.[10]Rural Litigation and Entitlement Kendra v State of Uttar Pradesh (1985) 2 SCC 431; Subhash Kumar v State of Bihar (1991) 1 SCC 598; Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum v Union of India (1996) 5 SCC 647.[11]Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 24.[12]ibid para 25.[13]ibid paras 25-26.[14]ibid para 27.[15]ibid.[16]ibid paras 28-33; Joint Statement on Human Rights and Climate Change (16 September 2019); Paris Agreement (adopted 12 December 2015, entered into force 4 November 2016) FCCC/CP/2015/10/Add.1, annex, preamble; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, The Environment and Human Rights (Advisory Opinion OC-23/17) (15 November 2017) Series A No 23; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment (24 January 2018) UN Doc A/HRC/37/59.[17]Ranjitsinh (n 1) paras 44–50, discussing State of the Netherlands v Urgenda Foundation ECLI:NL:HR:2019:2006; Sacchi v Argentina CRC/C/88/D/104/2019 (22 September 2021); and Teitiota v Chief Executive of the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment [2015] NZSC 107.[18]International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR).[19]Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171; Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 10 December 2008, entered into force 5 May 2013) 2922 UNTS 29. India is not a party to either.[20]UN Human Rights Committee, 'General Comment No 36 on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life' (3 September 2019) UN Doc CCPR/C/GC/36, para 62.[21]Teitiota v New Zealand (Views of 24 October 2019) UN Doc CCPR/C/127/D/2728/2016.[22]Billy v Australia (Views of 22 September 2022) UN Doc CCPR/C/135/D/3624/2019.[23]UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 'General Comment No 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art 12)' (11 August 2000) UN Doc E/C.12/2000/4, para 4.[24]Ranjitsinh (n 1) paras 28, 49.[25]UN Human Rights Council, ‘The Human Right to a Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment’ (8 October 2021) UN Doc A/HRC/RES/48/13, para 1.[26]Voting record as reported in Yann Aguila, 'The Right to a Healthy Environment' (IUCN World Commission on Environmental Law, October 2021) <https://iucn.org/news/world-commission-environmental-law/202110/right-a-healthy-environment> accessed 5 October 2026.[27]UNGA Res 76/300 (28 July 2022) UN Doc A/RES/76/300.[28]Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 27.[29]Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change (Advisory Opinion) (ICJ, General List No 187, 23 July 2025).[30]ibid para 457.[31]ibid paras 273, 282.[32]Overseas Development Institute, Keeping the International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion Alive at COP30 and Beyond (ODI 2025). The characterisation of India's submissions is that report's; the written and oral statements themselves should be consulted on the ICJ website.[33]Lavanya Rajamani, Differential Treatment in International Environmental Law (OUP 2006).[34]Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change (n 29).[35]Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz v Switzerland App no 53600/20 (ECtHR, 9 April 2024) para 519.[36]Jolly George Varghese v Bank of Cochin (1980) 2 SCC 360.[37]Gramophone Co of India Ltd v Birendra Bahadur Pandey (1984) 2 SCC 534.[38]Vishaka v State of Rajasthan (1997) 6 SCC 241.[39]Apparel Export Promotion Council v A K Chopra (1999) 1 SCC 759, as quoted in Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 57.[40]Ranjitsinh (n 1) paras 56, 58.[41]Paris Agreement (n 16) preamble; Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 30.[42]Protection of Human Rights Act 1993, s 2(1)(d).[43]ibid s 2(1)(f).[44]Ranjitsinh (n 1) paras 52-62.[45]ibid paras 17-18, 34-37.[46]ibid para 27.[47]ibid paras 61-62.[48]ibid paras 15, 38.[49]Paris Agreement (n 16) art 4(3).[50]Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 27.[51]KlimaSeniorinnen (n 35) para 519.[52]Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum (n 10); Indian Council for Enviro-Legal Action v Union of India (1996) 3 SCC 212.[53]National Green Tribunal Act 2010, s 20.[54]Ranjitsinh (n 1) paras 61-64.[55]ibid paras 25–26.[56]Francis Coralie Mullin v Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi (1981) 1 SCC 608.[57]Maneka Gandhi v Union of India (1978) 1 SCC 248.[58]ICESCR (n 18) art 2(2).[59]Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 32.[60]Vellore Citizens' Welfare Forum (n 10).[61]Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change (n 29) paras 273, 282.[62]Ranjitsinh (n 1) para 19.[63]Protection of Human Rights Act 1993, s 12(f).[64]ICCPR (n 18) art 2(1).[65]Obligations of States in respect of Climate Change (n 29).

[1] Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Govt. of India, Annual Report 2022–23 (2023).[2] Code on Wages, No. 29 of 2019, India Code (2019); Randhir Singh v. Union of India, A.I.R. 1982 S.C. 879 (India).[3] International Labour Organization [ILO], Global Wage Report 2020–21 (2020).[4] The Maternity Benefit Act, No. 53 of 1961, India Code (1961); Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, No. 6 of 2017, India Code (2017); Municipal Corporation of Delhi v. Female Workers (Muster Roll), A.I.R. 2000 S.C. 1274 (India).[5] The Protection of Women from Sexual Harassment at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, No. 14 of 2013, § 2(o), India Code (2013).[6] The Constitution of India, art. 14[7] The Constitution of India, art. 15[8] The Constitution of India, art. 19, cl. 1(g)[9] The Constitution of India, art. 21[10] Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, (1997) 6 S.C.C. 241 (India).[11] The Protection of Women from Sexual Harassment at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, No. 14 of 2013, § 2(o), India Code (2013)[12] The Protection of Women from Sexual Harassment at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, No. 14 of 2013, § 6, India Code (2013)

[1] Edmond Locard, The Analysis of Dust Traces, American Journal of Police Science, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 276–291 (1930)[2] Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, Act No. 46 of 2023.[3] Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973[4] Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, No. 46 of 2023, § 176(3).[5] BNSS, § 176.[6] BNSS, § 176(3).[7] Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC), 1973, § 157.[8] BNSS, § 105.[9] BNSS, § 185.[10] The Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D).[11] BNSS, § 176(3).[12] Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023 (BSA).[13] BSA, § 39.[14] State of Himachal Pradesh v. Jai Lal, (1999) 7 SCC 280: AIR 1999 SC 3318.[15] State of Gujarat v. Kishanbhai, (2014) 5 SCC 108.[16] Dashwanth v. State of Tamil Nadu, 2025 INSC 1203.[17] State of Himachal Pradesh v. Jail Lal, (1999) 7 SCC 280: AIR 1999 SC 3318.[18] Pattu Rajan v. State of Tamil Nadu, (2019) 4 SCC 771.[19] Manoj & Ors. v. State of Madhya Pradesh, (2023) 2 SCC 353.[20] BNSS, § 193(3)(i).[21] Pooranmal v. State of Rajasthan & Anr., INSC 217 (2026), 3 S.C.R. 314.[22] Ministry of Home Affairs (Government of India).[23] Ministry of Home Affairs (Government of India).

[1] Albert W. Alschuler, Plea Bargaining and Its History, 79 Columbia Law Review 1 (1979).[2] Murlidhar Meghraj Loya v. State of Maharashtra (1976) 3 SCC 684[3] The Law Commission of India 142nd Report on Concessional Treatment for Offenders who ontheir own initiative chose to pleas guilt without any bargaining.[4] www.ijlra.com[5]  Murlidhar Meghraj Loya v. State of Maharashtra (1976) 3 SCC 684[6] https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1439610/[7] http://indiankanoon.org/doc/164173419/[8]Brady v. United States, 397 U.S. 742 (1970).[9] Santobello v. New York, 404 U.S. 257 (1971).[10] IC art. 14, 20(3), 21, and 39AIndia code-https://indiacode.gov.in/[11] Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, Section 291(4)(a) and Section 292.[12] analysis 9 Kachhia Patel Shantilal Koderlal v. State of Gujarat, (1980) 3 SCC 120; Thippaswamy v. State of Karnataka, (1983) 1 SCC 194.20 BNSS, 2023, Sections 291–294[13] BNSS, 2023, Sections 291–292[14] practical challenges 2 Albert W. Alschuler, The Prosecutor’s Role in Plea Bargaining, 36 University of Chicago Law Review 50 (1968).[15] findings 4 Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, Chapter XXIII, Sections 289–300. And Code ofCriminal Procedure, 1973, Chapter XXI-A, Sections 265A–265L,[16] Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023, Chapter XXIII, Sections 289–300.[17]  Constitution of India, arts. 14, 20(3), 21 and 39A.[18]  BNSS – India Code https://indiacode.gov.in/

[1] Convention on International Civil Aviation (adopted 7 December 1944, entered into force 4 April 1947) 15 UNTS 295 (Chicago Convention), art 1.[2] United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3, art 3.[3] Thomas Gangale, The Development of Outer Space: Sovereignty and Property Rights in International Law (Praeger 2009) 45.[4] Chicago Convention (n 1), art 2.[5] Chicago Convention (n 1), art 3(a).[6] Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (adopted 27 January 1967, entered into force 10 October 1967) 610 UNTS 205 (Outer Space Treaty), art I.[7] Outer Space Treaty (n 13), art II.[8] Outer Space Treaty (n 13), art III.[9] 14 CFR §§ 101.33–101.37 (United States), Unmanned Free Balloons, Federal Aviation Regulations.

[1] 1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, arts 1–2; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 1979, arts 1–3.2. Constitution of India 1950, arts 14–16.[2] 1.Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 1979, arts 1–3. 2 .MP Jain, Indian Constitutional Law (9th edn, LexisNexis 2024).[3] 1. Flavia Agnes, Law and Gender Inequality: The Politics of Women’s Rights in India (Oxford University Press 1999)2.  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women 1979, arts 1–16.[4] 1. Shipra Agarwal, Legal Research Methodology (Allahabad Law Agency 2016).2.Mahalakshmi and P Balamurugan, Legal Research Methodology (Eastern Book Company 2026).[5] Mark Van Hoecke (ed), Methodologies of Legal Research: Which Kind of Method for What Kind of Discipline? (Hart Publishing 2011).Government of India, India Code, ‘The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005’ https://www.indiacode.nic.in/ accessed 29 September 2026.[6] 1. Flavia Agnes, Law and Gender Inequality: The Politics of Women’s Rights in India (Oxford University Press 1999).2. Ratna Kapur, Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edward Elgar Publishing 2018).[7] *Constitution of India 1950, arts 14, 15, 16 and 21.*Anuj Garg v Hotel Association of India, (2008) 3 SCC 1.*Joseph Shine v Union of India, (2019) 3 SCC 39.[8] Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act 2013.*Vineeta Sharma v Rakesh Sharma, (2020) 9 SCC 1.[9] MP Jain, Indian Constitutional Law (9th edn, LexisNexis 2025Flavia Agnes, Law and Gender Inequality: The Politics of Women’s Rights in India (Oxford University Press 2001).[10] India Code – Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005Ratna Kapur, Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edward Elgar Publishing 2018).[11] Indira Jaising, Law Relating to Sexual Harassment at the Workplace (Universal Law Publishing 2014). Flavia Agnes, Sudhir Chandra and Monmayee Basu, Women and Law in India (Oxford University Press 2016).[12] Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita 2023, Act No 45 of 2023.Government of India, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, India Code. The Act records its enforcement date as 1 July 2024.[13] *Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2011).* Rebecca J Cook and Simone Cusack, Gender Stereotyping: Transnational Legal Perspectives (University of Pennsylvania Press 2010).[14] Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2011).Flavia Agnes, Law and Gender Inequality: The Politics of Women’s Rights in India (Oxford University Press 2001).[15] *Upendra Baxi, The Future of Human Rights (3rd edn, Oxford University Press 2008).* Amartya Sen, Development as Freedom (Oxford University Press 1999).[16] *UN Women, information on women’s rights, gender equality and empowerment. UN Women*Sandra Fredman, ‘Substantive Equality Revisited’ (2016) 14(1) International Journal of Constitutional Law 712.[17] *Constitution of India, arts 14, 15, 16 and 21.*Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, ss 3, 17–23. The official text is available through India Code[18] United Nations Treaty Collection, official database containing treaty texts and participation information. United Nations Treaty Collection* UN Women, ‘About UN Women’, explaining its institutional role in advancing women’s rights, gender equality and empowerment. About UN Women[19] *Ministry of Home Affairs – for the new criminal laws including BNS: Ministry of Home Affairs*United Nations Treaty Collection – for CEDAW and other international treaties: UN Treaty Collection[20] *Legal Services Authorities Act 1987.*Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005.

[1] Kinang Song Rick Marcel, LLM (One Year Course), School of Law, CT University, Punjab, India. This article draws on the author’s LLM dissertation, Artificial Intelligence, Globalisation and the Music Industry: A Comparative Legal Study of Copyright Protection in India and Cameroon, undertaken under the supervision of Dr. Cheena Abrol, Assistant Professor, School of Law, CT University.[2] See generally World Intellectual Property Organization, WIPO Technology Trends 2019: Artificial Intelligence (WIPO 2019).[3] Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (adopted 9 September 1886, as revised) art 5(2).[4] Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) (adopted 15 April 1994, entered into force 1 January 1995) art 9; WIPO Copyright Treaty (adopted 20 December 1996, entered into force 6 March 2002).[5] See Organisation Africaine de la Proprie´te´ Intellectuelle, Bangui Agreement (as revised 1999).[6] TRIPS (n 3) arts 41–61.[7] TRIPS (n 3) art 9(2).[8] WCT (n 3) arts 4, 5, 8.[9] Berne Convention (n 2) art 9(2); TRIPS (n 3) art 13.[10] Copyright Act, 1957, §2(d)(vi).[11] Copyright Act, 1957, §52.[12] Copyright Act, 1957, §§18–19.[13] Copyright Act, 1957, §38.[14] Copyright Act, 1957, §57.[15] Copyright Act, 1957, §§33–36.[16] Eastern Book Co. v. D.B. Modak, (2008) 1 S.C.C. 1 (India).[17] R.G. Anand v. Delux Films, A.I.R. 1978 S.C. 1613 (India).[18] Super Cassettes Indus. Ltd. v. MySpace Inc., 2011 (48) P.T.C. 49 (Del.) (India), rev’d, MySpace Inc. v. Super Cassettes Indus. Ltd., 2016 SCC OnLine Del 6382 (India).[19] Law No 2000/011 of 19 December 2000 Relating to Copyright and Neighbouring Rights (Cameroon) s 3(1)(b).[20] Law No. 2000/011, §15(1).

[1] Research Scholar, Department of Law, Netaji Subhas University, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand.[2] Assistant Professor, Department of Law, Netaji Subhas University, Jamshedpur, Jharkhand[3] Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (Government of India); Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, India at a Glance: Agriculture, Food and Rural Development.[4] Committee on Doubling Farmers' Income, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, Report of the Committee on Doubling Farmers' Income, vol I–XIV (2017–2018); Competition Commission of India, Market Study on E-Commerce (January 2020).[5] Competition Commission of India, Market Study on E-Commerce (January 2020); OECD, Competition Issues in the Food Chain Industry (OECD Policy Roundtable, 2013).[6] International Competition Network, Report on Competition and the Food Sector (ICN, 2012); OECD, Purchasing Power and Competition in the Food Chain (OECD Policy Roundtable, 2008).[7] OECD, Purchasing Power and Buyers' Cartels (OECD 2022) 5–8.[8] OECD, Glossary of Statistical Terms: Monopsony (OECD); see also OECD, Purchasing Power and Buyers' Cartels (OECD 2022).[9] OECD, Competition in the Food Supply Chain (OECD Publishing 2024)[10] International Competition Network, Report on Competition and the Food Sector (ICN 2012); OECD, Purchasing Power and Buyers' Cartels (OECD 2022).[11] OECD, Purchasing Power and Buyers' Cartels (OECD 2022) 5–8.[12] Competition Act 2002 (India), Preamble and s 18; Competition Commission of India, ‘Basic Introduction to Competition Law’ (CCI)[13] Competition Act 2002[14] Section 3 of the Competition Act, 2002[15] In Re: Alleged Buyer/Purchase Cartel, Case No 05 of 2018, Competition Commission of India[16] Section 4 of the Competition Act, 2002[17] Competition Act 2002 (India), Section 19; Competition Commission of India, ‘Antitrust’ (CCI), explaining the Commission's functions under the Competition Act 2002[18] Competition Act of 2002[19] Section 4 of Competition Act, 2002[20] Section 3 Competition Act of 2002[21] Competition Commission of India, Competition Policy in Indian Agriculture (CCI); OECD, Competition in the Food Supply Chain (OECD Publishing 2024).[22] Sherman Antitrust Act 1890, 15 USC §§ 1–2; Clayton Act 1914, 15 USC §§ 12–27.[23] Mandeville Island Farms, Inc v American Crystal Sugar Co, 334 US 219, 221–23 (1948)