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[1] The Constitution of India, s. 19

[2] Bijoe Emmanuel v State of Kerala & Ors (AIR 1987 SC 748)

[3] Brij Bhushan v State of Delhi (AIR 1950 SC 129)

[4] A. K. Gopalan v State of Madras (AIR 1950 SC 27)

[5] The Constitution of India, article 19(1)(b)

[6] The Constitution of India, article 19(1)(c)

[7] The Constitution of India, article 19(1)(d), (e)

[8] The Constitution of India, article 19(1)(g)

[9] The Constitution of India, article 20

[10] Kedar Nath Bajoria v State of West Bengal

[11] The Constitution of India, article 21

[12] A. K. Gopalan v state of Madras (AIR 1950 SC 27)

[13] Maneka Gandhi v Union of India (AIR 1978 SC 597)

[14] Kharak Singh v State of UP (AIR 1963 SC 1295)

[15] The Constitution of India, article 21A

[16] Mohini Jain (Miss) v State of Karnataka (AIR 1992 SC 1858)

[17] Unnikrishnan v State of Andhra Pradesh (AIR 1993 )

[18] The constitution of India, article 22

[19] Joginder Kumar v State of UP (AIR 1994 SC 1349)

[20] D. K. Basu v State of W.B (AIR 1997 SC 610)

1 Sumanjeet, The state of e-commerce laws in India : a review of Information Technology Act, 52 Int. J. Law Manag. 265–282 (2010).

2 Dave Chaffey, E-Business and E-Commerce Management: Strategy, Implementation and Practice (5 ed. 2013)

4 Sheen Kaul, 'History and Development of Consumer Protection Laws in India' (Legal Bites - Law And Beyond, 19 June 2020) accessed 21 June 2021

5 :https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/how-jamtara-scamsters-pocketed-rs-1-5-lakh-everyday-through-credit-card-frauds/articleshow/103692692.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst

6 National Association Of Software Communication (NASSCOM) v. Ajay Sood and Others, 119 (2005) DLT 596

8sec43 IT ACT 2000. Penalty for damage to computer, computer system, etc

9 sec65 IT ACT 2000. Tampering with computer source documents.

10 sec66 IT ACT 2000. Hacking with computer system.

11 sec 66 C IT ACT 2000 cheating by impersonation

12  section 66D IT ACT 2000, violation of bodily privacy

13 Sec 415  IPC1860 cheating

14 Sec 416  IPC1860 Cheating by Personation

15 Sec 417  IPC1860  Punishment for Cheating

16 Sec 418  IPC1860 Punishment for Cheating

17 Sec 420 IPC1860 Cheating with knowledge that wrongful loss may ensue to person whose interest offender is bound to protect

[1] Editorial, “Extrajudicial Executions: The Supreme Court has failed the citizen on encounter killings” (2015) Economic and Political Weekly, 50(15), 7–8 < http://www.jstor.org/stable/24481873 > accessed 8 January 2024

[2] Indian Penal Code 1860, s 100

[3] National Human Rights Commission, Manual on Human Rights for Police Officers (December 2011)

[4] Om Prakash v. State of Jharkhand (2012) 12 SCC 72

[5] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India and another (1997) 3 SCC 433

[6] High Commissioner for Human Rights/ Centre for Human Rights, Human Rights and Law Enforcement: A Manual on Human Rights Training for the Police, Professional Training Series 5, United Nations: New York and Geneva, 1997, p88

[7] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1976, Article 6

[8] Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, Article 3

[9] Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerela (1973) 4 SCC 225: AIR 1973 SC 1461

[10] The Constitution of India 1950, Article 21

[11] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Human Rights, Terrorism and Counter-terrorism, Fact Sheet No. 32, p. 8

[12] National Human Rights Commission, Manual on Human Rights for Police Officers (December 2011)

[13] Sankar Sen, Human Rights and Inhuman Wrongs (Saujanya Books, 2010)

[14] A/HRC/23/47/Add. 1, “Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions”, April 2013

[15] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. State of Maharashtra (2014) AIR SCW 5940

[16] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 174

[17] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 176

[18] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 176(2)

[19] The Code of Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Act, 2005, s 176(5)

[20] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 176(4)

[21] United Nations General Assembly ‘Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials’ Res 34/169 (17 December 1979)

[22] Economic and Social Council ‘Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions’ resolution 1989/65 (24 May 1989)

[23] Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Study on the right to the truth, Sixty-second session, UNCHR, 62nd Sess, Item 17 of the provisional agenda, E/CN.4/2006/91.

[24] Indian Penal Code1860, s 96

[25] Indian Penal Code1860, s 97

[26] Indian Penal Code1860, s 99

[27] Indian Penal Code1860, s 100

[28] Indian Penal Code1860, s 102

[29] Bihari Rai v. State of Bihar, (2009) AIR 2009 SC 18

[30] Yogendra Morarji v. State of Gujarat (1980) AIR 1980 SC 660: 1980 Cr LJ 459:

“The principles as to the right of private defence of body are as follows –

1. there is no right of private defence against an act which is not in itself an offence under the Code;
2. the right commences as soon as a reasonable apprehension of danger to the body arises from the attempt or threat to commit some offence. Although the offence may not have been committed, it is co-terminus with the duration of such apprehension;
3. it is defensive and not a punitive or retributive right. Therefore, in no case more harm than is necessary to inflict in defence is permissible;
4. the right extends to killing of the actual or potential assailant when there is a reasonable and imminent apprehension of the crimes enumerated in the six clauses of section 100 of IPC”

[31] V. Subramani v. State of Tamil Nadu (2005) 10 SCC 358:

“Due weightage has to be given to, and hyper technical approach has to be avoided in considering what happens on the spur of the moment on the spot and keeping in view normal human reaction and conduct, where self-preservation is the paramount consideration. But, if the fact situation shows that in the guise of self-preservation, what really has been done is to assault the original aggressor, even after the cause of reasonable apprehension has disappeared, the plea of right of private defence can legitimately be negatived. The court dealing with the plea has to weigh the material to conclude whether the plea is acceptable.”

[32] Rohtash Kumar v. State of Haryana (2013) 14 SCC 290:

“It also appears that he [the appellant] was declared absconder. But merely because a person is a dreaded criminal or a proclaimed offender, he cannot be killed in cold blood. The police must make an effort to arrest such accused. In a given case if a dreaded criminal launches a murderous attack on the police to prevent them from doing their duty, the police may have to retaliate and, in that retaliation, such a criminal may get killed. That could be a case of genuine encounter. But in the facts of this case, we are unable to draw such a conclusion.”

[33] Extra Judicial Execution Victim Families Association (EEVFAM) & Anr. v. Union of India & Anr (2012) W.P. (Crl) No. 129/2012

[34] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 46

[35] The Code of Criminal Procedure 1976, s 46(3)

[36] A.V. Dicey, The Law of the Constitution (first published 1915, Oxford University Press 2013)

[37] ADM, Jabalpur v. Shivakant Shukla (1976) 2 SCC 521: AIR 1976 SC 1207

[38] Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerela (1973) 4 SCC 225: AIR 1973 SC 1461

[39] State of Maharashtra v. Saeed Sohail Sheikh (2012) 13 SCC 192, [40]

[40] State of Maharashtra v. Saeed Sohail Sheikh (2012) 13 SCC 192

[41]  Constitution of India 1950, article 21

[42] R v. Sussex Justices, ex parte McCarthy (1924) 1 KB 256

[1] (Constitution of India) <https://cdnbbsr.s3waas.gov.in/s380537a945c7aaa788ccfcdf1b99b5d8f/uploads/2023/05/2023050195.pdf> accessed on 20 November 2023

[2] Om Prakash v. Emperor 1949 CriLJ 34

[3] (Model code of Conduct - Election Commission of India) accessed 20 November 2023

[4] Narayan Singh v. Sunderlal Patwa (2003) 9 SCC 300

[5] R. Y. Prabhoo v. Parbhakar K. Kunte 1996 SCC (1) 130

[6] Abhiram Singh v. C.D. Commachen (1996) 3 SCC 665, (2014) 14 SCC 382

[1] Avtar Singh and Prof (Dr) Harpreet Kaur, Introduction to the Law of Torts and Consumer Protection (LexisNexis Butterworths Wadhwa, 4th edn., 2020).

[2] The Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Act 45 of 1860), s. 499

[3] Indira Jaising, “It is Time to Get Rid of the Law of Criminal Defamation”, The Wire, May 16, 2016, available at: https://thewire.in/law/it-is-time-to-get-rid-of-the-law-of-criminal-defamation (last visited on Oct. 5, 2023).

[4] Vincent R. Johnson, “Comparative Defamation Law: England and the United States” 24 The University of Miami International and Comparative Law Review 4 (2016).

[5] Arshdeep Ghuman, “Comparative Analysis of Defamation Laws in England and USA” 5 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) 37 (2018).

[6] Ibid.

[7] Bhairav Acharya, “Criminal Defamation and the Supreme Court's Loss of Reputation”, The Wire, May 14, 2016, available at: https://thewire.in/law/criminal-defamation-and-the-supreme-courts-loss-of-reputation (last visited on Oct. 8, 2023).

[8] Durga Das Basu, Law of the Press (Lexis Nexis, 5th edn., 2010).

[1] "Sparrow Test": Canadian legal doctrine assessing indigenous rights' scope, requiring historical existence and justifiable regulation under proportionality analysis.

[1] Dr. J.J.R. Upadhyaya, Environmental Law, Central Law Agency, Allahabad, 4th Edition, 2017, p: 90

[2] Gurdeep Singh, Environmental Law, page no: 324,329 (Easteren Book Company, Lucknow, 2nd Edition, 2016.

[3] Gurdeep Singh, Environmental Law, page no: 330,350 (Easteren Book Company, Lucknow, 2nd Edition, 2016.

[4] AIR 1996 SC 2715

[5] Report of the World commission on Environment and development, our common future, oxford university Press New Delhi, 1987, p 40.

[6] P255

[7] 1987 SCR (1) 819

[8] AIR 2002 Kant 123

[9] AIR 1980 SC 1622

[10] 1985 AIR 652, 1985 SCR (3) 169

[11] 2015

[12] 2020

[1] J. C. Sharman, Shopping for Anonymous Shell Companies: An Audit Study of Anonymity and Crime in the International Financial System, 24 TJEP 127, 129, 2010.

[2] Fabiano Angélico and Lígia Zagato, SÃO PAULO: DOES CORRUPTION LIVE NEXT DOOR?, Transparency International (2017), http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep20590.7.

[3] Larry R. Bateman, SHELL COMPANIES: A REGULATORY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK, ProQuest LLC

(2016, https://www.proquest.com/openview/17c3884f84dbd2bbb7b5d2e8b5ae3fa9/1?cbl=18750&parentSessionId= hZD1gF6Ro8BCa%2FAu8kHta%2BTyhetdGa%2FquTLioKEDQj8%3D&pqorigsite=gscholar&parentSessionId=G DRjUG7ZCxi9hbqLyaiGvvB8aViXYbH0UrEpE%2F3aTa0%3D.

[4] Id.

[5] Id.

[6] Id.

[7] Financial Transparency Coalition, https://financialtransparency.org/about/, (last visited Oct. 6, 2023)

[8] TransparencyInternational,https://www.transparency.org/en/news/new-imf-anti-corruption-framework-3-things-

well-be-looking-for,(Last visited Oct.7 2023).

[9] Id.

[10] History, OECD, http://www.oecd.org/about/history/ [https://perma.cc/2FVSSEWS]

[11] Nicholas Vail,Cracking Shells: The Panama Papers & Looking to the European Union's Anti-Money Laundering Directive as a Framework for Implementing a Multilateral Agreement to Combat the Harmful Effects of Shell Companies,Texas A&M Review, (Oct. 7 2023 at 10 PM) https://scholarship.law.tamu.edu/lawreview/vol5/iss1/7/

[12] The companies act § 92 (2013).

The companies act § 164 (2013).

[13] Jos´e-de-Jesús Rocha-Salazar a, María-Jesús Segovia-Vargas, María-del-Mar CamachoMinano, Detection of shell companies in financial institutions using dynamic social network, ESWA 207 (2022) 117981, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S095741742201209X

[14] Id.

[15] Sachet Singh and Abhishek K. Singh, Black Money and Voluntary      Disclosure of Income Scheme: Two Sides of the Same Coin?, 1 KIIT Student L Rev 1 (2014)

[16] Ryan Hauer, Another Attempt at Patent Reform: S. 1013 The Patent Abuse Reduction Act of 2013, 24 DEPAUL

J. ART TECH. & INTELL. PROP. L., 371, 372

[17] Supra Note 16

[18] Id.

[19] Raghav Ohri, DHFL scam: Promoters Wadhawans set up 87 shell companies, says CBI charge sheet, The EconomicTimes(Nov.28,2022),https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/dhfl-scam-promoters-wadhawans- set-up-87-shell-companies-says-cbi-charge-sheet/articleshow/95812374.cms?from=mdr.

[20] DHFL fraud: The Wadhawan brothers, a multi-crore scam and ongoing cases, BusinessToday (Aug. 29, 2023), https://www.businesstoday.in/latest/corporate/story/dhfl-fraud-the-wadhawan-brothers-a-multi-crore-scam-and- ongoing-cases-396126-2023-08-29.

[21] Raghav Ohri, DHFL scam: Promoters Wadhawans set up 87 shell companies, says CBI charge sheet, The Economic Times (Nov. 28, 2022), https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/india/dhfl-scam-promoters- wadhawans-set-up-87-shell-companies-says-cbi-charge-sheet/articleshow/95812374.cms?from=mdr.

[22] Will Fitzgibbon, Law Firm’s Files Include Dozens of Companies and People Blacklisted by U.S. Authorities, ICIJ (Apr. 4, 2016), https://www.icij.org/investigations/panama-papers/20160404-sanctioned-blacklisted-offshore- clients/.

[23] Explore the Panama Papers Key Figures, ICIJ (Jan. 31, 2017), https://panamapapers.icij.org/graphs/.

[24] Amisha Raghuvanshi, The Embryonic Stage of Special Purpose Acquisition Companies in India: Prevailing Obstacles and the Way Forward, SCC Online Web Edition 103-110 (2022).

[25] Government identified 2,38,223 companies as shell companies between 2018-2021, (July 27, 2021), https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1739583.

[26] The companies act § 248 (2013).

[27] The companies act § 455 (2013).

[1] Assistant Professor, GD Goenka University

[2] Law Student, GD Goenka University

[3] Sen, A. (2009). The Idea of Justice. Harvard University Press.

[4] Kaur, S. (2014). Philosophies and Human Rights. Journal of Social Sciences Research, 6, 997-999.

[5] A Short History of Human Rights, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/hereandnow/Part- 1/short-history.htm.

[6] Magna Carta (1215)

[7] English Bill of Rights, 1689

[8] French Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789)

[9] U.S. Const. amend. I (Bill of Rights)

[10] Dr. Surinder Kaur, Historical Development of Human Rights, 6 Journal of Social Sciences Research 997-999 (2014).

[11] The Bhagavad Gita (Chapter 5, Verse 18)

[12] Surah 42: Ash-Shura: 21)

[13] Mazumdar, S. (2016). Human Rights Jurisprudence in India: A Critical Review. Oxford University Press.

[14] Sikhism. (n.d.). BBC Religion.

[15] The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. (1789).

[16] Das, V. (2007). Life and Words: Violence and the Descent into the Ordinary. University of California Press.

[17] Lock, J. (1690). Two Treatises of Government.

[18] Rousseau, J. J. (1762). The Social Contract.

[19] Voltaire. (1763). Treatise on Tolerance.

[20] Henkin, L. (1999). The Age of Rights. Columbia University Press.

[21] The International Labor Organization (ILO).

[22] Mohammad Habibur Rahman & Mohammad Habibur Rahman, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) as Foundation of the International Human Rights Law (Dec. 11, 2020).

[23] Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam, adopted August 5, 1990, OIC Res. 3/10, Annex, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Supp. No. 18, at 14, U.N. Doc. A/45/18 (1990).

[24] African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted June 27, 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982).

[25] Sonia Cardenas & Rebecca Root. Human Rights in Latin America: A Politics of Transformation. 2nd ed. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2022

[26] Tawhida Ahmed & Israel de Jesús Butler, The European Union and Human Rights: An International Law Perspective, 17 European Journal of International Law 771–801 (2006).

[27] Nidhi Madan. History & Development of Human Rights in Indian. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science. Vol. 22, Issue 6, Ver. 9, pp. 01-06 (June 2017)

[28] Sanatana Dharma: an advanced text book of Hindu religion and ethics, (Dec. 19, 2011)

[29] S. Radhakrishnan, Development of Human Rights in an Indian Context, 36 Int'l J. Legal Info. 2, article 14 (2008).

[30] Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, AIR 1973 SC 1461 (India).

[31] Jolly George Varghese v. Bank of Cochin, AIR 1980 SC 470 (India).

[32] Chairman, Railway Board and others v. Mrs. Chandrima Das, AIR 2000 SC 988 (India)

[33] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature Dec. 16, 1966, 999

U.N.T.S. 171 (entered into force Mar. 23, 1976).

[34] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Jan. 3, 1976).

[35] Convention on the Rights of the Child, opened for signature Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force Sept. 2, 1990).

[36] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, 1249

U.N.T.S. 13 (entered into force Sept. 3, 1981).

[37] Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), Dec. 13, 2006, 2515 U.N.T.S. 3

(entered into force May 3, 2008).

[38] Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT), Dec. 10, 1984, S. Treaty Doc. No. 100-20, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85 (entered into force June 26, 1987).

[39] International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), Dec. 21, 1965, 660 U.N.T.S. 195 (entered into force Jan. 4, 1969)

[40] Das, Veena. Life and Words: Violence and the Descent into the Ordinary. University of California Press, 2007.

[41] Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989, Pub. L. No. 33, 1989 (India).

[42] Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995, Pub. L. No. 1, 1996 (India).

[43] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, Pub. L. No. 43, 2005 (India).

[44] Right to Education Act, 2009, Pub. L. No. 35, 2009 (India).

[45] The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, Pub. L. No. 32, 2012 (India)

[46] The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, 2013, Pub. L. No. 14, 2013 (India).

[47] National Food Security Act, 2013, Pub. L. No. 20, 2013 (India).

[48] The Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015, Pub. L. No. 2, 2016 (India).

[49] The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, Pub. L. No. 49, 2016 (India).

[50] The Mental Healthcare Act, 2017, Pub. L. No. 10, 2017 (India)

[51] The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2021, Pub. L. No. 4, 2021 (India).

[52] Mazumdar, S. Human Rights Jurisprudence in India: A Critical Review. Oxford University Press, 2016.

[53] Chandrachud, R. S. Balancing Constitutional Rights in India. Oxford University Press, 2019.

[54] Baxi, Upendra. "Inhuman Wrongs and Human Rights: Unconscionability as Legal Form." Indian Journal of Human Rights 8, no. 2 (2004): 24-56.

[55] Sen, Amartya. The Idea of Justice. Harvard University Press, 2009.

[56] Chandrachud, R. S. Balancing Constitutional Rights in India. Oxford University Press, 2019.

[57] AIR 1997 SC 3011

[58] (2014) 5 SCC 438