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[1] Norwegian Police Service, Report on the 22 July Terror Attacks (2012)[2] 2011 Norway Attacks: Government of Norway Official Report (2012).[3] Anders Behring Breivik, 2083: A European Declaration of Independence (2011).[4] Norwegian Ministry of Justice & Public Security, White Paper on Terrorism Response (2013).[5] Andrew Silke, Terrorists, Victims and Society (John Wiley & Sons 2003).[6] Jerrold M. Post, The Mind of the Terrorist (2007).[7] Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Univ. Pa. Press 2008).[8] European Commission, Radicalisation Awareness Network Report (2016).[9] Robert K. Merton, Social Structure and Anomie, 3 Am. Soc. Rev. (1938).[10] The People v. Anders Behring Breivik (Nor. 2012).[11] Travis Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency (1969).[12] Lawrence E. Cohen & Marcus Felson, Social Change and Crime Rate Trends, [volume] Am. Soc. Rev. (1979).[13]Robert K. Merton, Social Structure and Anomie, 3 Am. Soc. Rev. (1938).[14] Paul Gill, Lone-Actor Terrorists (Routledge 2015).[15] Norway Attacks: Breivik Sentenced to Preventive Detention, BBC News (2012).[16] United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (2017).[17] Europol, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) (2017).[18] Stuart Hall, The Work of Representation (1997).[19] Yvonne Jewkes, Media and Crime (2015).[20] Human Rights Watch, Norway: Justice Response to Terrorism (2013).

[1] Norwegian Police Service, Report on the 22 July Terror Attacks (2012)[2] 2011 Norway Attacks: Government of Norway Official Report (2012).[3] Anders Behring Breivik, 2083: A European Declaration of Independence (2011).[4] Norwegian Ministry of Justice & Public Security, White Paper on Terrorism Response (2013).[5] Andrew Silke, Terrorists, Victims and Society (John Wiley & Sons 2003).[6] Jerrold M. Post, The Mind of the Terrorist (2007).[7] Marc Sageman, Leaderless Jihad: Terror Networks in the Twenty-First Century (Univ. Pa. Press 2008).[8] European Commission, Radicalisation Awareness Network Report (2016).[9] Robert K. Merton, Social Structure and Anomie, 3 Am. Soc. Rev. (1938).[10] The People v. Anders Behring Breivik (Nor. 2012).[11] Travis Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency (1969).[12] Lawrence E. Cohen & Marcus Felson, Social Change and Crime Rate Trends, [volume] Am. Soc. Rev. (1979).[13]Robert K. Merton, Social Structure and Anomie, 3 Am. Soc. Rev. (1938).[14] Paul Gill, Lone-Actor Terrorists (Routledge 2015).[15] Norway Attacks: Breivik Sentenced to Preventive Detention, BBC News (2012).[16] United Nations Office on Drugs & Crime, Handbook on Criminal Justice Responses to Terrorism (2017).[17] Europol, European Union Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT) (2017).[18] Stuart Hall, The Work of Representation (1997).[19] Yvonne Jewkes, Media and Crime (2015).[20] Human Rights Watch, Norway: Justice Response to Terrorism (2013).

[1] Assistant Professor of Law, School of Law, Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Bikaner.[2] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1948 (statement of B.R. Ambedkar).[3] Id. (statement of H.N. Kunzru).[4] Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, AIR 1975 SC 2299; (1976) 2 SCR 347 (India).[5] T.N. Seshan v. Union of India, (1995) 4 SCC 611 (India).[6] Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, W.P. (Civil) No. 104 of 2015, decided Mar. 2, 2023 (India).[7] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1948 (statement of B.R. Ambedkar).[8] Id. (statements of H.V. Kamath & H.N. Kunzru).[9] Representation of the People Act, No. 43 of 1951, India Code (1951).[10] Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, AIR 1975 SC 2299; (1976) 2 SCR 347 (India).[11] Union of India v. Ass’n for Democratic Reforms, (2002) 5 SCC 294 (India).[12] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, (2003) 4 SCC 399 (India).[13] Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, W.P. (Civil) No. 104 of 2015, decided Mar. 2, 2023 (India).[14] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1948 (statement of B.R. Ambedkar).[15] Id. (statement of H.V. Kamath).[16] Id. (debates on Draft Art. 289).[17] INDIA CONST. art. 325.[18] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1948 (statement of K.M. Munshi).[19] INDIA CONST. art. 326.[20] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1949 (statement of Jawaharlal Nehru).[21] INDIA CONST. arts. 327–328.[22] INDIA CONST. art. 329.[23] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1949 (statement of B.R. Ambedkar).[24] N.P. Ponnuswami v. Returning Officer, AIR 1952 SC 64 (India).[25] N.P. Ponnuswami v. Returning Officer, AIR 1952 SC 64 (India).[26] Mohinder Singh Gill v. Chief Election Commr., AIR 1978 SC 851 (India).[27] Id. at 861.[28] Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain, AIR 1975 SC 2299; (1976) 2 SCR 347 (India).[29] Union of India v. Ass’n for Democratic Reforms, (2002) 5 SCC 294 (India).[30] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, (2003) 4 SCC 399 (India).[31] Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India, (2006) 7 SCC 1 (India).[32] Subramanian Swamy v. Election Comm’n of India, (2013) 10 SCC 500 (India).[33] Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, W.P. (Civil) No. 104 of 2015, decided Mar. 2, 2023 (India).[34] Representation of the People Act, No. 43 of 1951, India Code (1951).[35] Id. § 29A.[36] Lily Thomas v. Union of India, (2013) 7 SCC 653 (India).[37] T.N. Seshan v. Union of India, (1995) 4 SCC 611 (India).[38] Election Commission of India, Introduction of EPIC Programme, 1993.[39] Election Commission of India, Use of EVMs in Goa Assembly Elections, 1999.[40] Union of India v. Ass’n for Democratic Reforms, (2002) 5 SCC 294 (India).[41] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, (2003) 4 SCC 399 (India).[42] See generally R. Bhattacharya, “Digital Disinformation and Electoral Integrity in India,” 12 Indian J. Const. L. 45 (2021).[43] Subramanian Swamy v. Election Comm’n of India, (2013) 10 SCC 500 (India).[44] Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India, W.P. (Civil) No. 104 of 2015, decided Mar. 2, 2023 (India).[45] ee generally S. Palshikar, “Democracy in the Digital Age: Challenges for Electoral Regulation,” 58 Econ. & Pol. Wkly. 32 (2023).[46] INDIA CONST. art. 324.[47] Id.[48] Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, 1948 (statement of B.R. Ambedkar).[49] INDIA CONST. arts. 325–326.[50] Election Commission of India, Model Code of Conduct Guidelines, 2019.[51] Election Commission of India, Introduction of EVMs and VVPATs, 1999–2013.[52] People’s Union for Civil Liberties v. Union of India, (2003) 4 SCC 399 (India).[53] Subramanian Swamy v. Election Comm’n of India, (2013) 10 SCC 500 (India).[54] Law Commission of India, Report No. 255 on Simultaneous Elections, 2015.

[1] Assistant Professor of Law, School of Law, Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Bikaner[2] See generally Law Commission of India, Report No. 146: Crimes Against Women (2025).[3] INDIA CONST. arts. 14, 15, 21.[4] Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, (1997) 6 S.C.C. 241 (India).[5] Mukesh v. State (NCT of Delhi), (2017) 6 S.C.C. 1 (India).[6] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2025: Statistics (2026).[7] Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13.[8] Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, List of Issues: India (2026).[9] UN Women, Scoping Study on Violence Against Women in India (2026).[10] United Nations Country Team India, Progress Report on Gender Equality (2026).[11] Ananya Dwivedi, Domestic Violence as a Human Rights Violation in India, 44 Indian J. Gender Stud. 56 (2025).[12] X v. State of Maharashtra, (2025) 3 S.C.C. 411 (India).[13] State of Assam v. Rani Boro, (2026) 4 S.C.C. 212 (India).[14] See, e.g., South African Law Reform Commission, Report on Sexual Offences (2024); UK Home Office, Violence Against Women Strategy (2025).[15] INDIA PENAL CODE § 375; Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, § 63.[16] Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, No. 43 of 2005, INDIA CODE.[17] Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, No. 14 of 2013, INDIA CODE.[18] National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India 2025: Statistics (2026).[19] Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, List of Issues: India (2026).[20] Sylvia Walby, Theorizing Patriarchy 20–45 (Oxford Univ. Press 1990).[21] Russell Dobash & R. Emerson Dobash, Violence Against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy 65–112 (Free Press 1979).[22] Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Govt. of India, National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), 2019–21 (2022).[23] UN Women, Progress Report on Gender Equality in India (2026).[24] Catharine A. MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State 161–78 (Harvard Univ. Press 1989).[25] Carol Smart, Feminism and the Power of Law 23–45 (Routledge 1989).[26] Kimberlé Crenshaw, Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex, 1989 U. Chi. Legal F. 139, 149–57.[27] Marvin E. Wolfgang, Victim Precipitated Criminal Homicide, 48 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 1, 5–12 (1957).[28] Code of Criminal Procedure, No. 2 of 1974, § 357 (India); Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, No. 23 of 2023, § 396 (India).[29] Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum v. Union of India, (1995) 1 S.C.C. 14 (India).[30] E.P. Royappa v. State of Tamil Nadu, (1974) 4 S.C.C. 3 (India).[31] National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India, (2014) 5 S.C.C. 438 (India).[32] Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma, (2020) 9 S.C.C. 1 (India).[33] Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law 16–34 (Oxford Univ. Press 2011).[34] V.R. Krishna Iyer, Justice at Work 45–67 (1980).[35] Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan, (1997) 6 S.C.C. 241 (India).[36] Delhi Domestic Working Women’s Forum v. Union of India, (1995) 1 S.C.C. 14 (India).[37] Laxmi v. Union of India, W.P. (Crl.) No. 129 of 2006 (Supreme Court of India, 2013).[38] Suchita Srivastava v. Chandigarh Administration, (2009) 9 S.C.C. 1 (India).[39] Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra, (1983) 2 S.C.C. 96 (India).

Zety Shakila Binti Mohd Yusof, study on e-commerce and food-delivery service quality (2016). S. S. Sangle et al., “Online Meal Delivery Systems: A Study of Customer Convenience,” International Journal of Business and Management 12 (2016). Dr. S. Jain and Z. Ansari, study on expansion of online meal delivery services (2016). Mark R. Gleim, Catherine M. Johnson and Stephanie J. Lawson, study on gig-economy workers’ perceptions (2019); Sarah Kaine & Emmanuel Josserand, “The Organisation and Experience of Work in the Gig Economy,” Journal of Industrial Relations 61, no. 4 (2019): 479–500. Primary survey data collected by the author from 100 food-delivery workers in North and South Chennai, 2024–25. The full questionnaire is reproduced in the Appendix. Code on Social Security, 2020, s. 2(35) and s. 2(61). Rajasthan Platform-Based Gig Workers (Registration and Welfare) Act, 2023. Indian Federation of App-Based Transport Workers v. Union of India, W.P. (C) No. 1068 of 2021 (Supreme Court of India). Uber BV v. Aslam, [2021] UKSC 5.

1 WTO, Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, ¶ 4, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/2 (Nov. 14, 2001).2 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights art. 31, Apr. 15, 1994, Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Annex 1C, 1869 U.N.T.S. 299.3 Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2025, ¶ 73 (July 23, 2025) (General List No. 187), https://www.icj-cij.org/case/187 [hereinafter Climate Change AO].4 Climate Change AO, supra note 3, ¶¶ 73–74.5 Climate Change AO, supra note 3, ¶¶ 224–229 (holding that, taking subsequent agreement of the parties into account under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties art. 31(3)(a), 1.5°C is the parties’ agreed primary temperature goal); see also House of Commons Library, Climate Change at the International Court of Justice(2026) (summarizing the 1.5°C and “best available science” holdings).6 Govt. of India, Fourth Biennial Update Report to the UNFCCC (Dec. 30, 2024); India, Statement at COP29, Baku (Nov. 2024).7 TRIPS Agreement, supra note 2, art. 66.2.8 David M. Fox, Technology Transfer and the TRIPS Agreement Are Developed Countries Meeting Their End of the Bargain?, 10 Hastings Sci. & Tech. L.J. 1, 24 (2019).9 TRIPS Agreement, supra note 2, pmbl.; Donald Harris, TRIPS After Fifteen Years: Success or Failure, as Measured by Compulsory Licensing, 18 J. Intell. Prop. L. 367, 382 (2011).10 World Trade Organization, TRIPS and Public Health: Frequently Asked Questions,https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/tripsfacsheet_e.htm (explaining that the WTO General Council adopted the temporary waiver on 30 August 2003, that Members agreed on 6 December 2005 to incorporate the waiver permanently into the TRIPS Agreement, and that the resulting Protocol entered into force on 23 January 2017, inserting Article 31bis and an accompanying Annex and Appendix into the Agreement).11 World Trade Organization, Canada Is First to Notify Compulsory Licence to Export Generic Drug (Oct. 4, 2007), https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news07_e/trips_health_notif_oct07_e.htm (reporting that Rwanda notified the WTO on 17 July 2007 of its intention to import 260,000 packs of a triple-combination antiretroviral (TriAvir); that the Canadian Commissioner of Patents granted Apotex Inc. a compulsory licence to manufacture and export the product on 19 September 2007; and that Canada notified the WTO of the licence on 4 October 2007).12 Bronwyn H. Hall & Christian Helmers, The Role of Patent Protection in (Clean/Green) Technology Transfer, 26 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 487 (2010); Copenhagen Economics A/S & IPR Co. A/S, Are IPRs a Barrier to the Transfer of Climate Change Technology? (2009) (report commissioned by the EuropeanCommission, DG Trade).13 Communication from Ecuador, Contribution of Intellectual Property to Facilitating the Transfer of Environmentally Rational Technology, WTO Doc. IP/C/W/585 (Mar. 5, 2013).14 Martin Khor, Climate Change, Technology and Intellectual Property Rights: Context and Recent Negotiations, South Centre Research Paper No. 45 (May 2012), https://www.southcentre.int/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/RP45_Climate-Change-Technology-and-IP_EN.pdf.15 Kim Lukac, Compulsory Licensing for Green Technology Transfer (June 2017) (unpublished LL.M. thesis, Tilburg University), http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=142869; Ya-Lan Wang, Patent Protection for Green Technologies – Is Compulsory Licensing the Way of Promoting Technology Transfer? (Sept. 12, 2019) (MIPLC Master Thesis Series 2018/19), https://ssrn.com/abstract=3684342.16 Neel Maitra, Access to Environmentally Sound Technology in the Developing World: A Proposed Alternative to Compulsory Licensing, Sabin Center for Climate Change Law, Columbia Law School (Dec. 2009),https://scholarship.law.columbia.edu/sabin_climate_change/67.17 Ronald Eberhard Tundang, Aligning Climate Needs and Intellectual Property: An Entitlement-Based Framework for Green Technology Transfer, 28 J. Int’l Econ. L. 441 (2025).18 Jessyca Van Weelde, Xiaoping Wu, Ting-Wei (Alex) Chiang & Bassam Peter Khazin, Reflection on the Implementation of Decision on Implementation of Article 66.2 of the TRIPS Agreement: Incentive forTechnology Transfer to Least-Developed Countries, WTO Staff Working Paper ERSD-2023-12 (Dec. 13, 2023), https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/reser_e/ersd202312_e.htm.19 Jorge L. Contreras, Bronwyn H. Hall & Christian Helmers, Pledging Patents for the Public Good: Rise and Fall of the Eco-Patent Commons, 57 Hous. L. Rev. 61, 76, 122–24 (2019).20 Id.21 Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law, Case No. 31, Advisory Opinion (ITLOS May 21, 2024).22 Verein KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz & Others v. Switzerland, App. No. 53600/20, ¶ 573 (Eur. Ct. H.R. Apr. 9, 2024).23 Neubauer v. Germany, 1 BvR 2656/18 (BVerfG Mar. 24, 2021).24 The State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation, ECLI:NL:HR:2019:2007 (Sup. Ct. Neth. Dec. 20, 2019).25 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties art. 31(3)(c), opened for signature May 23, 1969, 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 (entered into force Jan. 27, 1980).26 Climate Change AO, supra note 3, ¶¶ 263–26727 Climate Change AO, supra note 3, ¶ 14828 See supra note 6.29 See supra note 6.30 World Trade Organization, Members Continue TRIPS Implementation Review Discussion, Address IP Notification Obligations, WTO News (Mar. 21, 2025),https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news25_e/trip_21mar25_e.htm (stating that, since 2003, developed-country Members have submitted over 400 reports detailing technology-transfer actions and commitments under Article 66.2 of the TRIPS Agreement, and that the TRIPS Council has conducted 21 reviews of thosereports).31 Van Weelde et al., supra note 19.32 Natco Pharma Ltd. v. Bayer Corp., Compulsory Licence Application No. 1 of 2011 (Controller of Patents, Mumbai, Mar. 9, 2012); Bayer Corp. v. Union of India, MIPR 2013 (2) 97 (IPAB); Bayer Corp. v. Union of India, 2014 (60) PTC 277 (Bom).33 Novartis AG v. Union of India, (2013) 6 SCC 1.34 WTO, Ministerial Decision on the TRIPS Agreement, WT/MIN(22)/30, WT/L/1141 (June 17, 2022) [hereinafter COVID-19 TRIPS Decision].35 World Intellectual Property Org., WIPO GREEN Year in Review 2022, https://www3.wipo.int/wipogreen(reporting, as of July 2022, over 120,000 technologies, needs, and experts in the WIPO GREEN database, more than 2,000 registered users across 110 countries, and over 1,000 recorded connections between technologyproviders and seekers).36 World Intellectual Property Org., Decade of Green Innovation: Celebrating 10 Years of WIPO GREEN’s Impact on Technology Exchange and Climate Solutions (Nov. 28, 2023),https://www3.wipo.int/wipogreen/en/news/2023/news_0024.html (reporting that, by 2023, the database had grown to nearly 130,000 green-technology innovations, with 2,500+ users and 153 partners).37 Decision 18/CMA.7, Belém Technology Implementation Programme, UNFCCC Doc. FCCC/PA/CMA/2025/19/Add.2 (Mar. 30, 2026); Decision 17/CMA.7, Review of the Functions of the Climate Technology Centre, UNFCCC Doc. FCCC/PA/CMA/2025/19/Add.2, ¶ 3 (Mar. 30, 2026) (extending the Climate Technology Centre’s term to the end of 2041); see also UNFCCC, A New Era for Climate Technology toSupport Developing Countries: The Belém Technology Implementation Programme (Feb. 18, 2026), https://unfccc.int/news/a-new-era-for-climate-technology-to-support-developing-countries-the-belem-technology-implementation.38 See supra Part III (discussing Fox, supra note 8, and Van Weelde et al., supra note 19).39 See supra Part VI.B (discussing COVID-19 TRIPS Decision, supra note 35).40 See supra Part VI.C and accompanying notes.41 WTO Council for TRIPS, Extension of the Transition Period Under Article 66.1 of the TRIPS Agreement for Least Developed Country Members, IP/C/88 (June 29, 2021) (extending the transition period to 1 July 2034). 42 Tundang, supra note 18.