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[1] Krug EG et al., eds. World report on violence and health. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2002

[2] Maheshbhai Bharathi Desai vs State of Gujarat R/CR.MA/26957/2017 

[3] Supra note 1

[4] R. Thornhill & C. T. Palmer, A Natural History of Rape-Biological Bases or Sexual Coercion (1 Ed., 2000); R.

Thornhill & N. Thornhill, The Evolution of Psychological Pain, In Sociology and Social Science (R. Bell N. Bell Eds., 1989).

[5] Indian Penal Code, 1860 (Act 45 of 1860)

[6] Section 375 IPC, Exception 2 – Sexual intercourse or sexual acts by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age, is not rape

[7] Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018

[8] Whoever has sexual intercourse with his own wife, who is living separately, whether under a decree of separation or otherwise, without her consent, shall be punished with imprisonment of either description for a term which shall not be less than two years but which may extend to seven years, and shall also be liable to fine. Explanation — In this section, “sexual intercourse” shall mean any of the acts mentioned in clauses (a)

to (d) of section 375.

[9] 42nd Law Commission of India Report

[10] Dr Kapoor S. K., International Law and Human Rights, Central Law Agency (17th edition), 2009.

[11] The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948: section 2(1) (d) Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993

[12] Article 14 Constitution of India

[13] State of West Bengal v. Anwar Ali Sarkar, AIR (1952) SC 75

[14] Independent Thought v. Union of India, WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO. 382 OF 2013

[15] Joseph shine v. Union of India, writ (criminal) Petition no. 194 of 2017

[16] AIR 1991 SC 207

[17] 1999 (2) ALT Cri 77, II (1999) DMC 174

[18] (1886) ILR 8 All 622

[19] R/CR.MA/26957/2017

[1] The Code of Criminal Procedure ‘1973, Section 154

[2] “C0NSTITUTI0N OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE I4”

[3] “C0NSTITUTION OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE I9”

[4] “C0NSTITUTION OF INDIA”,1950, “ARTICLE 2I”

[5] 1 SCC 595

[6] SEVI AND ANOTHER; KOODAKKAL KARIAN AND OTHERS VERSUS STATE OF TAMIL NADU AND ANOTHER - LNIND 1981 SC 128 (1981) SCC (Cri) 679(1981) Supp SCC 431981 CrLJ 736AIR 1981 SC 1230[1981] 1 MLJ (Crl) 613[1981] MLJ 613[1982] 1 MLJ 7LNIND 1981 SC 1283

[7] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”, (2014) 2 SCC 1

[8] ABHINANDAN JHA & OTHERS VERSUS DINESH MISHRA WITH CONNECTED APPEAL - LNIND 1967 SC 144 (1968) CrLJ 971968 CriLJ 97AIR 1968 SC 117[1967] 3 SCR 668LNIND 1967 SC 144

[9] H N RISHBUD AND INDER SINGH VERSUS THE STATE OF DELHI - LNIND 1954 SC 177 (1955) 1 SCR 1150(1955) S.C.J. 2831955 Cr LJ 5261955 CriLJ 526AIR 1955 SC 196AIR 1955 SC 198[1955] 1 MLJ 173LNIND 1954 SC 177

[10] SEVI AND ANOTHER; KOODAKKAL KARIAN AND OTHERS VERSUS STATE OF TAMIL NADU AND ANOTHER - LNIND 1981 SC 128 (1981) SCC (Cri) 679(1981) Supp SCC 431981 CrLJ 736AIR 1981 SC 1230[1981] 1 MLJ (Crl) 613[1981] MLJ 613[1982] 1 MLJ 7LNIND 1981 SC 1283

[11] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”, (2014) 2 SCC 1

[12] “Lalita Kumari v Govt of UP”(2014) 2 SCC 1

[13] Motiram and others Versus State of Madhya Pradesh - LNIND 1978 SC 206 (1978) 4 SCC 471978 Cr LJ 17031978 SCC (Cri) 485AIR 1978 SC 1594[1979] 1 MLJ (Crl) 280[1979] 1 SCR 335LNIND 1978 SC 206

[1] Sharma, S., Mehra, D., Brusselaers, N., & Mehra, S. (2020). Menstrual hygiene preparedness among schools in India: a systematic review and meta-analysis of system-and policy-level actions. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(2), 647.

[2] Indian Young Lawyers Association and Ors. vs. The State of Kerala and Ors. (2019) 11 SCC 1

[3] Bihar Vikas Mission, Human Resource Manual.

[4] Ahead of its time! This Kerala school granted menstrual leave to students way back in 1991 (The Economic Times)

[5] From Period Leaves to Child Care Leaves, All About BYJU’S Updated Leave Policy.

[6] Introducing period leaves for women (zomato.com).

[7] Mahila Shiksha Sangh: a campaign towards empowering women

[8] Shailendra Mani Tripathi v. Union of India, WP (C) No. 172 of 2023, order dated 24-2-2023 (SC).

[9] SEBI/HO/CFD/CMD-2/P/CIR/2021/562, dated 10-5-2021.

[10] Labour Standards Act.

[11] The Employment Code Act, No.3 of 2019.

[12] Painful periods? Spain just passed Europe’s first paid ‘menstrual leave’ law.

[13] Act of Gender Equality in Employment.

[14] Labour Standards Law [Law No. 49 of 7 April 1947

[15] Act Concerning Manpower [Indonesian Labour Law] No. 39, 2003.

[1] S.k. Raghuvanshi, Tandon’s Public International Law, 18th ed, 2017, Allahabad law agency, Faridabad, p.352-353

[2] K.C.Joshi, International Law & Human Rights, 4th ed, Eastern Book Company, lucknow, 2019, p.22-223

[3] S.k. Raghuvanshi, Tandon’s Public International Law, 18th ed, 2017, Allahabad law agency, Faridabad, p.358-359

[1] Clear ‘History of GST Explained With Timelines’ (Clear from the makers of cleartax, Dec 01st 2022) < https://cleartax.in/s/history-of-gst#:~:text=Brief%20history%20of%20GST%20Bill%20and%20GST%20Act%20in%20India,-The%20history%20of&text=The%20Fiscal%20Responsibility%20and%20Budget,introduced%20by%20April%201%2C%202010.> Accessed 15th January 2023

[2] Ministry of Finance (Goods and Service Tax Council) < https://gstcouncil.gov.in/brief-history-gst > Accessed 15th January 2023

[3] [3] Ministry of Finance (Goods and Service Tax Council) < https://gstcouncil.gov.in/brief-history-gst > Accessed 15th January 2023

[4] Vaishnavi ‘What is GST?’(GROWW, 28th Feb 2017) < https://groww.in/p/tax/gst > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[5] Tejas ‘Measuring the size of economy : GDP’ (Khan Academy, 12th Dec 2020) < https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-domain/macroeconomics/macro-economic-indicators-and-the-business-cycle/macro-the-circular-flow-and-gdp/a/measuring-the-size-of-the-economy-gross-domestic-product-cnx > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[6] ‘India GDP Growth Rate 1961-2023 (Macrotrends) < https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/IND/india/gdp-growth-rate#:~:text=India%20gdp%20growth%20rate%20for,a%200.34%25%20decline%20from%202017. > Accessed on 22nd January 2023.

[7] GeeksforGeeks ‘Impact of GST on inflation’ (Geeks for Geeks, 8th august 2022) < https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/impact-of-gst-on-inflation/ > accessed on 25th January 2023.

[1] Competition Act 2002, s 4(b)

[2] CA Namratha Rodrigues, Economic Business and Commercial Laws (Yeshas Academy) 57

[3] “Competition Act 2002, s 4(a)(1)”

[4] Mr. Ricky Chopra ‘Predatory Pricing and its Legal Regime in India’ (Ricky Chopra International Counsels, July 10th 2021) < https://rcic.in/uncategorized/predatory-pricing-and-its-legal-regime-in-india/ > accessed 04th January 2023

[5] WILL KINTON “Predatory pricing: Definition, Example and why it’s Used” (Investopedia, December 24th 2022) < https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/predatory-pricing.asp > accessed 04th January 2023

[6] Shivali Anand “Why lack of competition maybe the worst thing for new startups”  (Escalon and done, May 4th 2021) < https://escalon.services/blog/why-a-lack-of-competition-may-be-the-worst-thing-for-new-startups/ > accessed 05th January 2022

[7] Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, Market structure/Competition in cable TV services (New Delhi India 7th September 2022) Ch 2 MONOPOLY/MARKET DOMINANCE/COMPETITION ISSUEES IN THE CABLE TV INDUSTRIES para 2.1

[8] Kiran Rathee & Veena Mani ‘ CCI rejects Airtel’s predatory pricing case against Reliance Jio (Business Standards, June 10th, 2017) < https://www.business-standard.com/article/companies/cci-rejects-airtel-s-predatory-pricing-case-against-reliance-jio-117061000051_1.html > accessed 05th January 2023

[9] Pavankalyan ‘How Reliance Jio proved that free services by it were not Anti-Competitive ( Complinity, 17th July 202) < https://taxguru.in/corporate-law/reliance-jio-proved-free-services-anti-competitive.html > accessed 05th January 2023

[10] Mint “Airtel accuses reliance jio of predatory pricing as telecom meet ministerial group” (Mint, 16th June 2017) < https://www.livemint.com/Industry/NypkgnFycyS4ODSngZHSYJ/Airtel-accuses-Reliance-Jio-of-predatory-pricing-as-telcos-m.html > Accessed 05th January 2023

[11] Suryansh Singh “The Predatory Pricing Case Against Reliance Jio: Did CCI Miss An Opportunity to Rejuvenate Indian Telecom Sector? (CCLE Competition for Good) < https://www.icle.in/resource/the-predatory-pricing-case-against-reliance-jio-did-cci-miss-an-opportunity-to-rejuvenate-indian-telecom-sector/ > Accessed 05th January 2023

* PhD Scholar, Faculty of Law, University of Delhi

[2] Simran Dhir and Anuja Agrawal, India: Data Protection And Competition Law: Developments And The Way Forward, August 24, 2021, available at: https://www.mondaq.com/india/antitrust-eu-competition-/1104738/data-protection-and-competition-law-developments-and-the-way-forward (last visited on 5th August 2023)

[3] Ashwini Vaishnaw, ETtech Interview on Data Bill to make social media firms accountable, Aug 10, 2023, available at:https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/newsletters/morning-dispatch/exclusive-new-law-on-digital-competition-likely-to-regulate-big-tech-it-minister-ashwini-vaishnaw-on-data-protection-bill/articleshow/102588582.cms?from=mdr  (last visited on 9th August 2023)

[4] Priyansh Dixit and Sukarm Sharma, Balancing Privacy and Competition: Evaluating the Competitive Effects of India’s Data Protection Bill, Statute Law Review, Volume 44, Issue 2, August 2023, available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/slr/hmad004 ( last visited on 9th August, 2023)

[5] AIR 2017 SC 4161

[6] Section 43A of the IT Act as per the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008

[7] Section 72A of the IT Act as per the Information Technology (Amendment) Act, 2008

[8] See the Office Memorandum dated July 31, 2017 issued by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology,  re: Constitution of a Committee of Experts to deliberate on a data protection framework for India, available at: https://www.meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/MeitY_constitution_Expert_Committee_31.07.2017.pdf (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[9] The Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, Section 3(28). Available at: https://prsindia.org/billtrack/the-personal-data-protection-bill-2019 (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[10] In December 2020, it was revised later on.

[11] Anurag Vaishnav, The Personal Data Protection Bill, 2019: All you need to know, December 23, 2019, available at: https://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/personal-data-protection-bill-2019-all-you-need-know (last visited on August 5, 2023)

[12] See Appendix 2: Data - Trends and Socio-Economic Impact, on page 41, Report by the Committee of Experts on Non-Personal Data Governance Framework, MEITY, Government of India on December 16, 2020, available at: https://static.mygov.in/rest/s3fs-public/mygov_160922880751553221.pdf (last visited on August 5, 2023)

[13] Rachit Sharma, Decoding Digital Personal Data Protection Bill (DPDP): A Comprehensive Overview, August 10, 2023, available at: https://www.taxmann.com/research/company-and-sebi/top-story/222330000000022456/decoding-digital-personal-data-protection-bill-dpdp-a-comprehensive-overview-news (last visited on August 10, 2023)

[14] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 3- Anti-competitive agreements.

[15] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 4- Abuse of dominant position.

[16] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 5 & 6- Regulation of Combinations

[17] Competition Commission of India, Report on Market Study on the Telecom Sector in India: Key Findings and Observations on  January 22, 2021, available at: http://cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Market-Study-on-the-Telecom-Sector-In-India.pdf  (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[18] Competition Commission of India, Report on Market Study on E-Commerce in India: Key Findings and Observations, on January 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Market-study-on-e-Commerce-in-India.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[19] Competition Commission of India, The workshop on Competition Issues in the Telecom Sector in India on February 2021, available at: http://cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/whats_newdocument/Proceedings-Telecom-Workshop.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[20] Competition Commission of India’s order stated under Section 26(1) of the Competition Act in In the Re: Updated Terms of Service and Privacy Policy for WhatsApp Users, (Case No. 01 of 2021), on 24 March 2021,  available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/SM01of2021_0.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[21] Harshita Chawla v. WhatsApp Inc. and Facebook Inc. CCI's orders under Section 26(2) of the Competition Act, Case No. 15 of 2020, on August 18, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/15-of-2020.pdf (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[22]Case No. 99 of 2016, on June 1, 2017 as available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/26%282%29%20Order%20in%20Case%20No.%2099%20of%202016.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[23] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 31(1), CCI’s orders in Facebook & Jio, Combination Registration No. C-2020/06/747, on June 24, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Notice_order_document/order-747.pdf  and Google/ Jio, Combination Registration No. C-2020/09/775, on November 11, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Notice_order_document/Order775.pdf (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[24] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 33, Interim order given in Federation of Hotel & Restaurant Associations of India (FHRAI) & Anr. v. MakeMyTrip India Pvt. Ltd. (MMT), available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/Interim_Order_14-of-2019and01-of-2020.pdf  (last visited on August 11, 2023)

[25] Ibid.

[26] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 26(1), In Re: Updated Terms of Service and Privacy Policy for WhatsApp Users, Suo Moto Case No. 01 of 2021, on March 24, 2021, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/SM01of2021_0.pdf ( last visited on August 12, 2023)

[27] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 27, Matrimony.com Limited v. Google LLC. & Ors. and Consumer Unity & Trust Society (CUTS) v. Google LLC. & Ors., Case Nos. 07 & 30 of 2012, on February 8, 2018, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/07%20%26%20%2030%20of%202012.pdf (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[28] The Competition Act, 2002, Section 26(1), XYZ v. Alphabet Inc. & Ors. (Case No. 07 of 2020), on November 9, 2020, available at: https://www.cci.gov.in/sites/default/files/07-of-2020.pdf> (last visited on August 12, 2023)

[29] Notification on February 25, 2021 available at: https://www.meity.gov.in/writereaddata/files/Gazette%20Significant%20social%20media%20threshold.pdf (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[30] Abir Roy and Aman Shankar, August 10, 2023, available at: https://www.moneycontrol.com/news/trends/legal/new-data-protection-bill-encompasses-antitrust-provisions-redefines-consent-in-digital-economy-11147731.html# (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[31] CJEU - C-252/21,available at: https://gdprhub.eu/index.php?title=CJEU_-_C-252/21_-_Meta_Platforms_and_Others_v_Bundeskartellamt (last visited on August 13, 2023)

[32] Beatriz Kira, Regulating digital ecosystems: bridging the gap between competition policy and data protection, Industrial and Corporate Change, Volume 30, Issue 5, October 2021, Pages 1337–1360. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1093/icc/dtab053 (last visited on August 14, 2023)

[1] Sivakumaran, Sandesh. "Sexual violence against men in armed conflict." European journal of international law 18.2 (2007): 253-276.

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[3] Zalewski, Marysia, et al. "Introduction: sexual violence against men in global politics." Sexual violence against men in Global Politics. Routledge, 2018. 1-19.

[4] Solangon, Sarah, and Preeti Patel. "Sexual violence against men in countries affected by armed conflict." Conflict, Security & Development 12.4 (2012): 417-442.

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[8] Vojdik, Valorie K. "Sexual violence against men and women in war: A masculinities approach." Nev. LJ 14 (2013): 923.

[9] Mitra, Monika, Vera E. Mouradian, and Marci Diamond. "Sexual violence victimization against men with disabilities." American journal of preventive medicine 41.5 (2011): 494-497.

[10] Turchik, Jessica A., Claire L. Hebenstreit, and Stephanie S. Judson. "An examination of the gender inclusiveness of current theories of sexual violence in adulthood: Recognizing male victims, female perpetrators, and same-sex violence." Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 17.2 (2016): 133-148.

[11] Choudhary, Ekta, Merideth Smith, and Robert M. Bossarte. "Depression, anxiety, and symptom profiles among female and male victims of sexual violence." American journal of men's health 6.1 (2012): 28-36.

[12] Walters, Mikel L., et al. "The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report." (2011).

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[15] Hester, Marianne, et al. "Exploring the service and support needs of male, lesbian, gay, bi-sexual and transgendered and black and other minority ethnic victims of domestic and sexual violence." Bristol: University of Bristol (2012).

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[17] K.D. Gaur, A Textbook on the Indian Penal Code, (4th Edition, Universal Law Publishing Co., 2013).

[18] B.K. Pal, problems and concerns of Indian Woman (ABC Publishing House, 1987)

[19] Vasudha Dhagamwar, Law, Power and Justice: The protection of personal Rights in the Indian Penal Code (Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1992).