[1] AS Narayana v State of Andhra Pradesh, (1996) AIR 1996 SC 1765.

[2] Commr, Hindu Religious Endowments v Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt, (1954) SCR 1005.

[3] Ibid.

[4] Sri Venkataramana Devaruand v The State of Mysore, (1958) 1 SCR 895.

[5] Durgah Committee, Ajmer v Syed Hussain Ali, (1962) 1 SCR 383.

[6] Commissioner of Police v Acharya Jagadisharananda Avadhuta, (1983) 4 SCC 522.

[7] Shayara Bano v Union of India, (2017) 9 SCC 1.

[8] Mohd. Hanif Qureshi & Others v The State Of Bihar, (1959) 1 SCR 629.

[9] Sardar Syedna Taher Saifuddin v The State Of Bombay, (1962) Supp(2) SCR 496.

[10] Indian Young Lawyers Association and Ors vs The State of Kerala and Ors, (2019) 11 SCC 1.

[11] Bhatia G, “The Sabarimala Judgment – II: Justice Malhotra, Group Autonomy, and Cultural Dissent” (Indian Constitutional Law and Philosophy, October 6, 2018).

[12] Central Board Of Dawooodi Bohra v The State Of Maharashtra, (2005) 2 SCC 673.

[13] Shirur Mutt, (n 2).

[14] de Souza, J. Patrocinio. “THE FREEDOM OF RELIGION UNDER THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION.” (The Indian Journal of Political Science, vol 13, no 3/4, 1952, pp, 70 JSTOR).

[15] Draft Constitution of India, 1948, Art 19.

[16] Constituent Assembly of India Debates (proceedings), Volume VII, (1948).

[17] Constitution of India, 1950, preamble.

[18] Jaclyn L. Neo, “Definitional Imbroglios: A Critique of the Definition of Religion and Essential Practice Tests in Religious Freedom Adjudication “ (2018, 16 Int'l J Const L 574, 576).

[19] Jacobsohn, Gary Jeffrey, “The Wheel of Law: India’s Secularism in Comparative Constitutional Context,” (Princeton University Press), 743.

[20]  Shirur Mutt, (n 2).

[21] Groves, Harry E. “RELIGIOUS FREEDOM,” (Journal of the Indian Law Institute 4, no 2, 1962, pp 191–204).

[22] Constituent assembly debate, 781

[23] Shirur Mutt, (n 2).

[24] Ram Prasad Seth v State of UP, (1957) SCC Online All 61.

[25] Qureshi, (n 8).

[26] Bhatia G, “The Sabarimala Judgment – II: Justice Malhotra, Group Autonomy, and Cultural Dissent” (Indian Constitutional Law and PhilosophyOctober 6, 2018)

[27] Indian Young Lawyers Association, (n 10).

[28] Ibid.

[29] Suhrith Parthasarathy, “An Equal Right to Freedom of Religion: A Reading of the Supreme Court's Judgment in Sabarimala” (Suhrith Parthasarathy May 26, 2020)

[30] Indian Young Lawyers Association, (n 10).

[31] COI, (n 18), Art 25,26.

[1] Assistant Professor,VELS INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ADVANCED STUDIES, (VISTAS)

[2] https://www.unicef.org/child-rights-convention/convention-text-childrens-version (22.09.2023)

[3] https://www.unhcr.org/ibelong/wp-content/uploads/IBELONG_Minority-Children-and-Statelessness.pdf (29.09.2023)

[4] https://goodfaithmedia.org/gender-discrimination-root-cause-of-stateless-children/ (27.09.2023)

[5] https://www.statelessness.eu/updates/blog/states-root-cause-statelessness (26.09.2023)

[6] https://www.smilefoundationindia.org/child-rights/ (01.10.2023)

[7] https://www.scirp.org/journal/paperinformation.aspx?paperid=96841 (26.09.2023)

[8] https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD1039168.pdf (02.10.2023)

[9] https://www.humanium.org/en/stateless-invisible/ (29.09.2023)

[10] https://www.getinthepicture.org/sites/default/files/resources/Good%20Practices%20Paper%20-%20Action%202%20Ensuring%20that%20no%20child%20is%20born%20stateless.pdf (03.10.2023)

[11] https://www.unhcr.org/id/wp-content/uploads/sites/42/2017/05/Protecting-the-Rights-of-Stateless-People-ENGLISH-FINAL.pdf (03.10.2023)

[12] https://rm.coe.int/cdcj-2022-12-statelessness-report-of-the-international-conference-and-/1680a74cfa (02.10.2023)

[13] https://nludelhi.ac.in/download/publication/2015/august/India%20and%20the%20Challenge%20of%20Stateless-A%20Review%20of%20the%20Legal%20Framework%20relating%20to%20Nationality.pdf (22.09.2023)

[1]https://pib.gov.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=52951retrieved 1 May 2013

[2]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_Nyayalayas_Act,_2008, 24th July, 2009 ,5.10 pm

[3] https://indiankanoon.org/doc/139166176/

[4] Under current affairs notes Indian polity notes.

[5] https : / / www.financialexpress.com / India news / delayed justice -pendency- of -courts- cases- how- Indian- courts -are- clogged -with- pending cases/1578031/justice delayed: pending cases weigh down India's justice delivery system  ,retrieved on 26 july 2017,on 2:34pm

[6] Round Table Discussion organised by anveshi Research Centre for women studies and Human Rights forum on Gram Nyayalaya: the New Face of the Judiciary ,19 September 2009 by Vasudha Nagaraj.

[7]This was even though ‘strengthening in rural areas the institution of nyaya panchayats’ was one of their terms of reference. law commission of India, 114th report; gram nyayalaya,1(1986).

[8]“It has till today remained an alien system which has no living contact with the masses and is not meaningful to them.” Id., at7.

[9]Law commission of India (1986), supra note 31, at 19.

[10] This was Provided under Round Table Discussion on Gram Nyayalaya: the New Face of the Judiciary 19 September 2009 by Vasudha Nagaraj

[11]

[12] Vishwanathan,T.K.,The Gazette Of India,The Gram Nyayalaya Act, 2008, Secy To The Govt. Of India, Govt. Of India Press,Controller Of Publications,Delhi,2009

[13] https://current affairs.gktoday.in retrieved on 19 aug 2020,8 pm.

[i] AIR 1978 SC 597

[ii] 94 U.S. 113 (1876)

[iii] AIR1950 SC 27

[iv] AIR 1963 SC 1295

[v] 1981 SCR (2) 516

[vi] AIR1950 SC 27

[vii] AIR1978 SC 597

[viii] 1950 SCR 88

[ix] 1978 SCR (2) 621

[x] 1979 SCR (3) 532

[xi] SC (Date of Judgment 18/12/1997) 1998 1 SCC 226

[xii] 1967 SCR (2) 525

[xiii] 1964 SCR (1) 332

[xiv] 1980 SCR (2) 557

[xv] 1980 SCR (3) 855

[xvi] 1989 SCR (3) 997

[xvii] 1995 SCC (3) 42

[xviii] 1995 SCC (5) 482

[xix] Supp(6) SCR 827

[xx] 1990 SCR Supl. (1) 142

[xxi] AIR 1997 SC 3011

[xxii] 1981 SCR (2) 516

[xxiii]Appeal (crl.)  446-449 of 2004, Date Of Judgment: 08/03/2006

[xxiv] AIR 1983 SC 1155

[xxv] 1966 SCR (1) 702

[xxvi] AIR 1986 SC 467

[xxvii] 1979 SCR (1) 192

[xxviii] AIR 1994 SC 1349

[xxix] 1998 Supp(1) SCR 723

[xxx] AIR 2003 SC 664

[xxxi] AIR 1997 SC 568

[xxxii] Writ Petition (civil)72 of 1998, Date Of Judgment: 18/07/2005

[xxxiii] (2001) 8 SCC 765

[xxxiv] 1996 SCC (2) 648

[xxxv] AIR 1986 SC180

[xxxvi] 1987 SCR (1) 819

[xxxvii] AIR 1983 SC 1086

[xxxviii] JT 1986 136, 1986 SCALE (2)230

[xxxix] AIR 1992 SC 1858, 1992 SCR (3) 658

[1]Los Angels county sheriff’s department, USA, available at: http://shq.lasdnews.net/pages/PageDetail.aspx?id=1404

[2] J Dina Demetrius, “Exclusive: Inside the US’s largest psychiatric ward, the LA County Jail” Aljajeera America,  July 28, 2014, available at: http://america.aljazeera.com/watch/shows/america-tonight/articles/2014/7/25/l-a-county-jail-psychiatricward.html

[3] Eric Westervelt, Liz Baker, “America's Mental Health Crisis Hidden Behind Bars” NPR, Feb 25, 2020, available at:https://www.npr.org/2020/02/25/805469776/americas-mental-health-crisis-hidden-behind-bars

[4] Al-Rousan, T., Rubenstein, et al. “Inside the nation’s largest mental health institution: a prevalence study in a state prison system” 17 BMC Public Health, 342 (2017), available at: https://rdcu.be/doBaC

[5]Bethesda (MD), “NIH Curriculum Supplement Series” (National Institutes of Health (US),2007)

[6] Ibid

[7]   Black’s Law Dictionary defines ‘Parens Patriae’ as:­“ The State regarded as a sovereign; the state in its capacity as provider of protection to those unable to care for themselves.

[8] Anfang SA, Appelbaum PS. “Civil commitment--the American experience” 3 IsrJPsychiatryRelatSci 43(2006), available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17294986/

[9]Elchanan G. Stern,  “Parens Patriae and P atriae and Parental Rights: When Should the State ental Rights: When Should the State Override Parental Medical Decisions?” 33 J.L. & Health 79 (2019) available at: https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1558&context=jlh

[10] Saya A, Brugnoli C, et al. “Criteria, Procedures, and Future Prospects of Involuntary Treatment in Psychiatry Around the World: A Narrative Review” 10 Front Psychiatry 271 (2019) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6501697/

[11] Alexander D. Brooks , “Notes on Defining the "Dangerousness" of the Mentally III” available at: https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/54292NCJRS.pdf

[12] Bernadette Dallaire, Michael McCubbin, et al. “Civil commitment due to mental illness and dangerousness: the union of law and psychiatry within a treatment-control system” available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1467-9566.00226

[13] K. Chandrasekhar , “Involuntary Hospitalization: The Conflict Zone of Psychiatry and Law (Revisiting Section 19 of Mental Health Act 1987)”,  Indian J Psychol Med. (2018) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6065132/

[14]TENTH AMENDMENT, USA, avaialble at:  https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CONAN-1992/pdf/GPO-CONAN-1992-10-11.pdf

[15] State constitutions in federal system, Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, USA, available at: https://library.unt.edu/gpo/acir/Reports/policy/a-113.pdf

[16] Kathleen S. Swendiman, “Health Care: Constitutional Rights and Legislative Powers”  CRS Report for Congress, July 9, 2012 available at:  https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/R40846.pdf

[17] The Economic Bill of Rights, USA, available at: https://www.ushistory.org/documents/economic_bill_of_rights.htm (Last visted July 29, 2023)

[18] Supra note 2 at 16

[19] Rajshekhar Bipeta, “Legal and Ethical Aspects of Mental Health Care”, Indian J Psychol Med. (2019) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6436399/

[20] Basil Varkey, “Principles of Clinical Ethics and Their

Application to Practice”, Med Princ Pract(2021) available at: https://www.karger.com/Article/Pdf/509119

[21] UN General Assembly, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health” UN Doc  A/HRC/35/21 (March 28, 2017 ) available at: https://undocs.org/A/HRC/35/21

[22] United States v. Hinckley, 525 F. Supp. 1342 (D.D.C. 1981)  available at: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/525/1342/1692613/

[23] Ingrid G. Farreras, “History of Mental Illness” available at:  https://nobaproject.com/modules/history-of-mental-illness

[24] Diseases of the Mind: Highlights of American Psychiatry through 1900

Early Psychiatric Hospitals & Asylums, USA, available at:  https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/diseases/early.html

[25] Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, “Code of rules and regulations for the government of those employed in the care of the patients of the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane, near Philadelphia” (T.K. and P.G. Collins,USA  1850) available at: https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101560452-bk

[26] https://www.esh.dbhds.virginia.gov/

[27] Government and Mental Health Policy

[28] Dix Legacy Committee (Aug 28, 2018) available at: https://dixpark.org/sites/dixpark/files/2018-11/Dix%20Park_Full%20Legacy%20Report_2018.pdf

[29]  Smark, C, “Dorothea Dix: A social researcher and reformer”, Accounting & Finance

Working Paper 06/15, School of Accounting & Finance, University of Wollongong, 2006 available at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1030&context=accfinwp

[30] I Tell What I Have Seen”—The Reports of Asylum Reformer Dorothea Dix, https://iowaculture.gov/sites/default/files/history-education-pss-reform-dorothea-transcription.pdf

[31] Supra note 4 at 28

[32] Manon S. Parry,”Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)” Am J Public Health(April,2006) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470530/

[33] Hierholzer R, “A Mind That Found Itself” BMJ. (May 12,2007) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867897/

[34] https://www.mhanational.org/mental-health-bell

[35] https://govtrackus.s3.amazonaws.com/legislink/pdf/stat/60/STATUTE-60-Pg420.pdf

[36] Section 2 of the National Mental Health Act

[37] http://www.faqs.org/espionage/Ne-Ns/NIMH-National-Institute-of-Mental-Health.html

[38]Richard G. Frank, “The Creation of Medicare and Medicaid: The Emergence of Insurance and Markets for Mental Health Services”, Psychiatric Services(April 2000) available at:  https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/pdf/10.1176/appi.ps.51.4.465

[39] Ibid.

[40] Ibid

[41] Megan Testa, Sara G. West, “Civil Commitment in the United States”, Edgmont, Psychiatry (2010) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3392176/

[42] Supra note 1 at 8

[43] Cornell Law School, “The Problem of Civil Commitment.” Available at: https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution-conan/amendment-14/section-1/the-problem-of-civil-commitment

[44] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5001 (2020)

[45] George F. Parker, “ An Historical Review of the Legal and Personal Background to Jackson v. Indiana” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law(February 2011) available at: http://jaapl.org/content/39/1/86

[46] O'Connor v. Donaldson, 422 U.S. 563 (1975) available at: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/422/563/

[47] Ibid

[48] Lessard v. Schmidt, E.D. Wis. 1972,  available at: https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/349/1078/1501673/

[49] Michael J. Remington, “Lessard v. Schmidt and its Implications for Involuntary Civil Commitment in Wisconsin”  57 Marq. L. Rev. 65 (1973) available at: http://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/mulr/vol57/iss1/4

[50]  Mishra A, Mathai T, Ram D. “History of psychiatry: An Indian perspective”  Ind Psychiatry J. (2018) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6198594/

[51] Daund M, Sonavane S, et al. “Mental Hospitals in India: Reforms for the future” 2 Indian J Psychiatry (2018) available at:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5836345/

[52] Indian Lunacy Act, 1912. (Act No 4 of 1912) available at: https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/11080/1/indian_lunacy_act_1912.pdf

[53] Indian Lunacy Act, 1912. (Act No 4 of 1912),  s.15

[54] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5009

[55] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.  5006

[56] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5325.1.

[57] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 6000 (2020)

[58] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec 5350

[59] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 6000 b - A person received in a state hospital shall be deemed a voluntary patient.

[60] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.  6002

[61] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.  6004

[62] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5150 (2020)

[63] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5008 (2020) “Gravely disabled” means a condition in which a person, as a result of impairment by chronic alcoholism, is unable to provide for his or her basic personal needs for food, clothing, or shelter.

[64] Article 1 (commencing with Section 5150), or under court order for evaluation pursuant to Article 2 (commencing with Section 5200) or Article 3 (commencing with Section 5225)

[65] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.  5250

[66] Section 5260 Re-certification for Intensive Treatment

[67] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.  5260

[68] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.   5256, 5270.15

[69] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.   5300

[70] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.   5253

[71] The certification review hearing shall be conducted by either a court-appointed commissioner or a referee, or a certification review hearing officer. CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.   5256.1

[72] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.   5250

[73] County is an administrative or political subdivision of a state. Similar to district in Indian states.

[74] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5275

[75] Raphael J. Leo, “Competency and the Capacity to Make Treatment Decisions: A Primer for Primary Care Physicians, Prim Care Companion” J Clin Psychiatry. (1999) available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC181079/

[76] Ibid.

[77] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec.5325.2

[78] Welf & Inst Code Sec- 5152

[79] Riese v. St. Mary's Hospital & Medical Center, (209 Cal. App. 3d 1308)available at: https://law.justia.com/cases/california/court-of-appeal/3d/209/1303.html

[80] Debra S. Srebnik, “Advance Directives for Mental Health Treatment”, Psychiatry online, available at: https://ps.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/ps.50.7.919

[81] https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/house-bill/4449/text

[82] California Code Probate Code , https://www.nrc-pad.org/images/stories/PDFs/california_adstatute.pdf

[83] https://www.nrc-pad.org/images/stories/PDFs/california_adstatute.pdf

[84] Sec. 4670 Probate Code,  available at: https://www.nrc-pad.org/images/stories/PDFs/california_adstatute.pdf

[85] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5345

[86] Sigrid Bathen,“Stronger ‘Laura’s law’ wins Assembly approval” Capitol weekely, 06.09.2020, https://capitolweekly.net/stronger-lauras-law-wins-assembly-approval/

[87] CA Welf & Inst Code Sec. 5346

[88] Petition must be made by- Any person 18 and older with whom the person resides, Parents, spouse, sibling, child, etc, Mental health provider, Law enforcement

[89] Serious mental illness,  18 years old or above , History of poor treatment compliance leading to:  hospitalizations or incarcerations in the last 36 months or  Violent behavior at least once in the last 48 months, Offered and declined voluntary treatment in the past, Unlikely to survive safely in the community without supervision, Least restrictive measure necessary to ensure recovery and stability, Substantially deteriorating, Likely benefit from treatment, Not being placed in AOT must likely result in the patient being harmful to self/others and/or gravely disabled

[90] Personally examined the person 10 days prior to the submission of the petition, recommends assisted outpatient treatment for the person, persuaded that person to submit to an examination but not successful, reason to believe person meets the criteria for assisted outpatient treatment, Subject of petition have right to be represented by counsel or court appointed public defender.

[91] No order for AOT unless mental health treatment provider personally examined and reviewed treatment history, Court may order for custodial examination of person at treatment facility.

[92] shall not be ordered unless the licensed mental health treatment provider has submitted to the court a written treatment plan