[1] C Basavaraj, Reservation under the Constitution of India: Issues and Perspectives, 51 JILI, 267, (2009).

[2] Cass R. Sunstein, Affirmative Action, Caste, and Cultural Comparisons, 97 Mich. L. Rev. 1311 (1999). 

[3] See, George Sher’s articles “Groups and Justice,” Ethics 87 (1977): 174–81, and “Diversity,” Philosophy & Public Affairs 28 (1999): 85–104, respectively.

[4] Ibid.

[5] T.E. Weisskopf, AFFIRMATIVE ACTION IN THE UNITED STATES AND INDIA (Routledge, 2004).

[6] Will Kymlicka, CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY: AN INTRODUCTION  11 (Oxford, 1990).

[7] John Rawls, A THEORY OF JUSTICE (2nd ed., Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press, 1999).

[8] Ibid.

[9] John Rawls, A THEORY OF JUSTICE (2nd ed., Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press, 1999).

[10] Constitutional Rights Foundation, BRIA 23 3c Justice as Fairness: John Rawls and His Theory of Justice, CRF USA (2007), https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-23-3-c-justice-as-fairness-john-rawls-and-his-theory-of-justice. 

[11] Supra, note 7.

[12] Ibid.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Supra, note 7.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Ibid.

[17] Ibid.

[18] Ibid.

[19] He first mentioned this in his book A Theory of Justice. Ibid.

[20] Christopher Thomson, Ideal and Non-Ideal Theory in Political Philosophy, Oxford Repository (Aug, 27, 2020), https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1383;jsessionid=E5C784E7B091E9304CF86D3DEF249A67.

[21] “The Supreme Court in the California v Bakke ruled that a university’s use of racial quotas in its admission process was unconstitutional, but a school’s use of affirmative action to accept more minority applicants was constitutional in some circumstances.” See, Alex McBride, Regents of University of California v Bakke 1978, Thirteen, (Dec. 2006), https://www.thirteen.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_regents.html.

[22] Thomas Nagel, John Rawls and Affirmative Action, Spring JBHE, 82, (2003).

[23] Ibid.

[24] Ibid.

[25] Samuel Freeman, RAWLS  90–91 (London: Routledge, 2007).

[26] Robert S. Taylor, Rawlsian Affirmative Action, 119 Ethics, 476 (2009).

[27] Such measures require the elimination of any kind of legal barriers on grounds of race, color, sex, etc and the requisite punishment for any kind of discrimination that takes place.

[28] This would involve sensitization and formal training, alongside external monitoring, and enforcement to achieve self-conscious impartiality.

[29] Special programmes which would cater to the disadvantaged sections to enable and foster their growth and empowerment.

[30] This involves compensatory discrimination in favor of disadvantaged groups by providing them “bonus points” in selection indices, without the explicit use of quotas.

[31] Hard quotas are the reservation of proportional shares of seats in education and employment for the underprivileged groups.

[32] Supra, note 24.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Janelle Garcelona, Fair Equality of Opportunity: Reconceiving Affirmative Action through a Rawlsian Lens, Claremont Education (2015), https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2038&context=cmc_theses.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Amartya Sen among others has argued against the unanimity of decision making behind the veil of ignorance.

[37] Amartya Sen, What Do We Want from a Theory of Justice? Jstor (2006), www.jstor.org/stable/20619936.

[38] An ardent Libertarian in his ideological philosophy.

[39] Robert Nozick, ANARCHY, STATE AND UTOPIA, (Basic Books, 1974).

[40] Ibid.

[41] Charles W Mill, BLACK RIGHTS/WHITE WRONGS: THE CRITIQUE OF RACIAL LIBERALISM 205 (Oxford University Press, 2017).

[42] Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University Communitarianism, The Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2020), https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/.

[43] Michael Sandel, LIBERALISM AND THE LIMITS OF JUSTICE (Cambridge University Press, 1998).

[44] Supra, note 7.

[45] The genesis of AA can be traced to the British times when the State of Mysore and subsequently Bombay and Madras Presidency introduced reservations for non-Brahmins in government employment.

[46] Wendy Singer, A Seat at the Table: Reservations and Representation in India’s Electoral System, 11 Election Law Journal, 202 (2012).

[47] The introduction of reservation for Other Backward Classes took place in 1993 after the Mandal Commission agitation took place, which was subsequently nuanced by the Supreme Court in the1993 Indira Sawhney Judgment that introduced the application of “creamy layer” for the OBC reservation. 

[48] Indian Const. Art. 14.; Indian Const. Art.15.; Indian Const. Art 16.; Indian Const. Art 17.

[49] Article 14 provides the Right to Equality and equal protection from the law, Article 15 provides a right against discrimination, while Article 16 provides the right to equality of opportunity. Each of these rights accommodated positive discrimination in favor of the disadvantaged groups in society.

[50] Reservation in India covers four major categories in the Union Government and varies across States. Principally, the preferred groups are Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, Economically Weaker Section of general category and in some States, women.  

[1] Nick Robinson, Judicial Architecture & Capacity, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK IN INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 366 (Sujit Choudhry et al., Oxford University Press 2016).

[2] See Id. at 370.

[3] Id. at 367

[4] See also MP Singh, Situating the Constitution in the District Courts, 8 DELHI JUDICAL ACADEMY J. 47, (2012) (Art. 32 (3) of the constitution allows the SC to extend the writ jurisdiction to the local subordinate judiciary).

[5] Robinson, supra note 1, at 368.

[6] Sumeda, Clogged State of the Indian Judiciary, THE HINDU (May. 13, 2022, 14:13), https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/indian-judiciary-pendency-data-courts-statistics-explain-judges-ramana-chief-justiceundertrials/article65378182.ece

[7] Robinson, supra note 1, at 373.

[8] See Nick Robinson, Judicial Architecture & Capacity, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK IN INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 366, 377 (Sujit Choudhry et al., Oxford University Press 2016).

[9] Robinson, supra note 1, at 378.

[10] Indian Const. art. 227, cl.1.

[11] Robinson, supra note 1, at 379-81.

[12] Robinson, supra note 1, at 367.

[13]Nick Robinson, Judicial Architecture & Capacity, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK IN INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 366, 382 (Sujit Choudhry et al., Oxford University Press 2016).

[14] Indian Const. art.141.; Indian Const. art.142.

[15] Robinson, supra note 1, at 373.

[16] Nick Robinson, Judicial Architecture & Capacity, in THE OXFORD HANDBOOK IN INDIAN CONSTITUTIONAL LAW 367 (Sujit Choudhry et al., Oxford University Press 2016).

[17] Robinson, supra note 1, at 379.

[18]Robinson, supra note 1, at 377.

[19] Robert S. Moog, Delay in Indian Courts: Why the judges don’t take control, 16 THE JUSTICE SYSTEM J. 19, (1992) (demand for court resources is always exceeded by the supply of the same).

[20] Sneha Rao, What is India’s judges to Population Ratio, LIVE LAW (Dec. 13, 2021, 11:11 AM), https://www.livelaw.in/know-the-law/what-is-indias-judges-to-population-ratio-187497

[21] Sudhir Krishnaswamy et al., Legal and Judicial Reform in India: A Call for Systematic & Empirical Approaches, 2 Journal NLUD. 1 (2014) (adopting empirically test reform will aid in resolving disputes faster).

[22] Moog, supra note 18, at 22.

[23] See Robert S Moog, Elite Court Relations in India, 38 ASIAN SURVEY 410, 413 (1992).; Singh, supra note 4.; V Ravindra Sastry & K Saibaba, Good Governance: The Imperative of Judicial Reforms in India, 74 IJPS 9, 13-15 (2013) (the article highlights important judicial reforms that need to be adopted).

[24] Krishnaswamy et al., supra note 20.

[25] Moog, supra note 18.

[26] V Ravindra Sastry & K Saibaba, Good Governance: The Imperative of Judicial Reforms in India, 74 IJPS 9, 13-15 (2013).

[1] ‘New Wine in Old Bottles Definition’ (Collins Dictionary) < https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/new-wine-in-old-bottles> accessed April 12, 2022.

[2] Dhruv Sharma, ‘The Clear Sky: Interpreting Article 12 through Pradeep Kumar Biswas& Ors v. Indian Institute of Chemical Biology& Ors (2008) < https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1106615> accessed April 14, 2022.

[3] VN Shukla, Constitution of India (13th edn, Eastern Book Company 2017) 24.

[4] Pradeep Kumar Biswas v. Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, (2002) 5 SCC 111.

[5] Sabhajit Tewary v. Union of India, (1975) 1 SCC 485.

[6] ibid [1],[2].

[7] Sukhdev Singh v. Bhagat Ram, (1975) 1 SCC 421.

[8] ibid [3].

[9] Pradeep Kumar Biswas (n3) [1]-[3].

[10] ibid [4].

[11] (n6).

[12] Ramana Daya Ram Shetty v. International Airport Authority of India, (1979) 3 SCC 489.

[13] Ajay Hasia etc. v. Khalid Mujib Sehravardi, (1981) 1 SCC 722.

[14] Pradeep Kumar Biswas (n3) [25].

[15] ibid [43]-[45].

[16] ibid [48]-[54].

[17] ibid [55]-[57].

[18] Shukla (n2) [32].

[19] ibid [98]-[100].

[20] Rajasthan State Electricity Board v. Mohan Lal, AIR 1967 SC 1857.

[21] (n7).

[22] (n12).

[23] (n13).

[24] Sujit Choudhry, Madhav Khosla, and Pratap Bhanu Mehta (ed), The Oxford Handbook of the Indian Constitution (Oxford University Press 2016) 794.

[25] ibid 795.

[26] ibid 796.

[27] Zee Telefilms v. Union of India, (2005) 4 SCC 649.

[28] Jatya Pal Singh v. Union of India, (2013) 6 SCC 452.

[29] Pradeep Kumar Biswas (n3) [40].

[1] AIR 2015 SC 1523.

[2] Writ Petition ( Civil ) Nos 1031 and 1164 of 2019.

[1] Artificial Life Meets Entertainment: Lifelike Autonomous Agents Pattie Maes: https://dl.acm.org/doi/abs/10.1145/219717.219808

[1] Payyannur Pavithra Mothiram in a Geographical Indication tag ownership tussle, P Sudhakaran, The times of India, 21st August 2014

[2] Van Uytsel, S. (2017). When Geographical Indications Meet Intangible Cultural Heritage: The New Japanese Act on Geographical Indications. In I. Calboli & W. Ng-Loy (Eds.), Geographical Indications at the Crossroads of Trade, Development, and Culture: Focus on Asia-Pacific (pp. 508-529). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316711002.022

[3] Fashion law journal, Increasing focus on Heritage: Geographical indications and beyond, Radha Khera, 28th September, 2023

[4] Irene Calboli, Geographical Indications of Origin, Economic Development, and Cultural Heritage: Good Match or Mismatch?, 11 Indian J. Intell. Prop. L. 11 (2020)

[5] ibid

[6] Thinking outside the box: The legal and non-legal objectives of Geographical Indications, Suelen Carls, world trade organisation, 2017