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A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STATUTORY PROVISIONS ON VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA
AUTHORED BY: SHUBHAM MISHRA
Violence against women in India is a pervasive and multifaceted issue that undermines the fundamental rights and dignity of women across various social, economic, and cultural contexts. This abstract provides an overview of the prevalence, forms, and consequences of violence against women in India, as well as the systemic factors contributing to its perpetuation.
Despite significant progress in legislation and policy frameworks aimed at protecting women's rights, violence against women remains widespread in India. Various forms of violence, including domestic violence, sexual assault, dowry-related violence, honor killings, and human trafficking, continue to threaten the safety and well-being of women in both public and private spheres. These acts of violence are often rooted in deep-seated gender inequalities, patriarchal norms, and social hierarchies that perpetuate discrimination and oppression against women.
India has implemented several statutory provisions to address the pervasive issue of violence against women in the country. These provisions aim to protect women's rights, ensure their safety, and provide them with avenues for seeking justice. The legal framework includes various laws and acts that cover different forms of violence, such as domestic violence, sexual assault, harassment, and trafficking.
Combating violence against women in India requires a holistic and intersectional approach that addresses the root causes of violence, promotes gender equality, strengthens legal and institutional mechanisms, and fosters social change. By empowering women, challenging patriarchal norms, and mobilizing collective action at all levels of society, India can work towards creating a safer, more inclusive, and equitable society for all.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
“The violence of woman is the most omnipresent and unaddressed human right violations on earth”.
Jimmy Carter
Violence against women in India is a significant and complex issue deeply rooted in cultural, social, economic, and political factors. It takes various forms, including domestic violence, sexual harassment, dowry-associated violence, rape, acid attacks, honor killings, and trafficking.
Violence against women can include physical abuse, sexual assault, emotional abuse, harassment, and other forms of coercion or control. It's rooted in unequal power dynamics between men and women and is often a tool used to maintain control or dominance over women. It violates women's fundamental human rights and can have devastating and long-lasting effects on victims and their communities.1.
Women have the right to live free from violence and the threat of violence. Acts such as domestic violence, sexual assault, and honor killings violate this fundamental right. Gender-based violence perpetuates and reinforces discrimination against women. It denies women equal enjoyment of their rights and opportunities solely based on their gender. Women have the right to equal treatment under the law and to access justice without discrimination. Violence against women often results in impunity for perpetrators due to systemic biases and inadequate legal responses. Violence against women can have severe physical and psychological consequences, violating their rights to health and well-being. Survivors may suffer from physical injuries, trauma, depression, and other mental health issues.
In India, several laws have been enacted to address violence against women and ensure their protection and rights. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence
1Debabrata Roy, Original Research Paper, An Analysis Of The Concept Of Mental Cruelty In India, IJSR (2020)
Act, 2005 aims to provide protection to women from domestic violence and to prevent violence within the family or domestic relationship. It defines domestic violence broadly to include physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, and economic abuse. It provides for protection orders, residence orders, and other measures to support survivors.
The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 law prohibits the giving or receiving of dowry as a condition for marriage. Dowry-related violence and harassment of women for dowry are criminal offenses under this Act.
The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace Act, 2013 seeks to prevent and address sexual harassment of women in the workplace. It mandates the establishment of ICCs in organizations and outlines procedures for filing complaints and conducting inquiries.2
The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 amendment to IPC and CrPC introduced several changes to address crimes against women, including amendments to laws related to rape, acid attacks, stalking, voyeurism, and trafficking.
The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 prohibits the solemnization of child marriages and provides for the prevention of child marriages, protection of rights of children, and matters connected therewith.
The Juvenile Justice Act, 2015: While not specific to violence against women, this law addresses issues related to juvenile offenders, including those involved in crimes against women. These are some of the key laws in India aimed at preventing and addressing violence against women. However, enforcement and implementation of these laws remain significant challenges, and efforts to improve access to justice, support services for survivors, and address systemic barriers are ongoing.3.
Specialized courts, such as Fast Track Courts and Women Courts, have been established to expedite trials of cases related to violence against women. These courts are intended to provide swift justice and increase conviction rates. The government, along with civil society organizations, conducts awareness campaigns
2 N.K Acharya, Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (Asia Law House, 2013)
3 Neena Bohra et al (2015), Violence against women, Indian J Psychiatry. 2015
to educate the public about gender-based violence, women's rights, and available support services. These campaigns aim to challenge harmful stereotypes and promote gender equality.
CHAPTER 2
HUMAN RIGHT ISSUES AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN
The right to life stands as the foremost and universally recognized human right, underpinning a spectrum of rights aimed at ensuring individuals can achieve their full potential and lead dignified lives within society. It places a positive obligation on states to create conditions conducive to such development and to prevent violations of this right, ensuring perpetrators are held accountable.
Despite widespread endorsement of the UDHR, women continue to endure pervasive violence and injustices globally. This violence, stemming from entrenched patriarchal norms prevalent in many societies, manifests in various forms, including physical abuse, psychological trauma, female infanticide, sexual exploitation, and human trafficking. Numerous studies consistently highlight the disproportionate impact of violence on women, alongside the structural barriers hindering their advancement across generations.
Throughout history, women have vocally advocated for equal rights and an end to gender-based violence, catalyzing transformative movements such as the three waves of feminism. While progress has been made, persistent inequalities persist, necessitating targeted legislative measures and societal interventions. However, disparities persist, with women from rural or marginalized communities facing compounded challenges compared to their urban or privileged counterparts.
To foster a more equitable environment for women globally, several steps can be taken. Firstly, ensuring access to education from an early age is paramount, empowering young women with knowledge of their rights and enabling them to challenge harmful traditions limiting their intellectual growth. Secondly, there must be vigilant monitoring of instances of violence against women, coupled with swift and decisive legal action to send a clear message that such acts will not be tolerated. These efforts should be complemented by broader societal initiatives aimed at dismantling entrenched patriarchal structures and promoting gender equality across all spheres of life.4
F0undati0n f0r Human Rights: The UDHR serves as a f0undati0nal d0cument in the realm 0f human rights, emphasizing principles such as equality, dignity, and n0n- discriminati0n. These principles are crucial in addressing vi0lence against w0men as a vi0lati0n 0f their fundamental human rights.
Br0ad Pr0tecti0n: While the UDHR d0es n0t explicitly menti0n vi0lence against w0men, its pr0visi0ns 0n the right t0 life, liberty, and security 0f pers0n (Article 3) pr0vide a br0ad framew0rk that can enc0mpass pr0tecti0n fr0m vari0us f0rms 0f vi0lence, including th0se experienced by w0men.
Universal Applicability: One 0f the key strengths 0f the UDHR is its universal applicability. It applies t0 all individuals, regardless 0f gender, ethnicity, religi0n, 0r any 0ther characteristic. This universality undersc0res the principle that vi0lence against w0men is a human rights issue that c0ncerns every0ne.
Lack 0f Explicit Menti0n: One 0f the primary limitati0ns 0f the UDHR regarding vi0lence against w0men is its failure t0 explicitly address this issue. While Article 3 pr0vides a f0undati0n f0r pr0tecti0n fr0m vi0lence, the d0cument d0es n0t specifically ackn0wledge the unique f0rms 0f vi0lence and discriminati0n that w0men may face.
Gender Neutrality: The language 0f the UDHR is 0ften criticized f0r being gender- neutral, which can 0bscure the gendered nature 0f human rights vi0lati0ns. By n0t explicitly rec0gnizing the specific challenges faced by w0men, the UDHR may n0t adequately capture the c0mplexity 0f vi0lence against w0men and the systemic inequalities that underpin it.
Need f0r Further Instruments: While the UDHR lays the gr0undw0rk f0r human rights pr0tecti0n, additi0nal instruments specifically addressing vi0lence against w0men,
4 Aruna Sharma, Women’s rights: Misuse of laws erode faith in justice system, The Financial Express, 2017
such as the DEVAW and the CEDAW, are necessary t0 pr0vide m0re targeted and c0mprehensive pr0tecti0ns.
While the UDHR pr0vides a f0undati0nal framew0rk f0r addressing vi0lence against w0men as a human rights vi0lati0n, its limitati0ns highlight the need f0r m0re specific and c0mprehensive instruments t0 address the unique challenges faced by w0men in relati0n t0 vi0lence and discriminati0n.5
Vi0lence against w0men in India is a multifaceted issue with deep-r00ted s0cial, cultural, and ec0n0mic dimensi0ns. Here's an analysis 0f s0me 0f the s0cial and ec0n0mic fact0rs c0ntributing t0 this pr0blem:
Patriarchal N0rms: India has a l0ng hist0ry 0f patriarchal traditi0ns that sub0rdinate w0men and perpetuate gender inequality. These n0rms dictate w0men's r0les within the family and s0ciety, 0ften relegating them t0 sub0rdinate p0siti0ns and denying them aut0n0my 0ver their b0dies and lives. Patriarchal attitudes c0ntribute t0 a culture 0f impunity f0r perpetrat0rs 0f vi0lence against w0men.
Ec0n0mic Disemp0werment: W0men's ec0n0mic dependence 0n men can exacerbate their vulnerability t0 vi0lence. Limited access t0 educati0n and empl0yment 0pp0rtunities restricts w0men's financial independence and ability t0 leave abusive situati0ns. Ec0n0mic disparities als0 intersect with 0ther f0rms 0f marginalizati0n, such as caste and ethnicity, further c0mplicating w0men's experiences 0f vi0lence.
Child Marriage and D0wry: Practices such as child marriage and d0wry perpetuate the subjugati0n 0f w0men and c0ntribute t0 their vulnerability t0 vi0lence. Child brides are m0re likely t0 experience d0mestic vi0lence, and the pressure t0 pr0vide d0wry can lead t0 financial strain and expl0itati0n within marriages.
Lack 0f Legal Enf0rcement: Despite legislative measures aimed at pr0tecting w0men's rights, including the PWDVA and amendments t0 the IPC, enf0rcement remains weak.
5 Kishan Dutt, The necessity of Gender-Neutral laws in India, Legatoapp, 2021
Cultural barriers, c0rrupti0n, and inadequate legal infrastructure 0ften impede access t0 justice f0r surviv0rs 0f vi0lence.
S0cial Stigma and Victim Blaming: Surviv0rs 0f vi0lence 0ften face s0cial stigma and victim blaming, disc0uraging them fr0m seeking help 0r rep0rting incidents t0 auth0rities. Cultural tab00s surr0unding discussi0ns 0f sexuality and vi0lence further marginalize surviv0rs and perpetuate cycles 0f abuse.
Urban-Rural Divide: While vi0lence against w0men 0ccurs acr0ss India, there are significant disparities between urban and rural areas in terms 0f access t0 res0urces and supp0rt services. Rural w0men may face additi0nal barriers t0 seeking help, including limited access t0 healthcare, legal aid, and supp0rt netw0rks.
Addressing vi0lence against w0men in India requires a c0mprehensive appr0ach that addresses the underlying s0cial and ec0n0mic fact0rs driving this phen0men0n. Eff0rts t0 pr0m0te gender equality, emp0wer w0men ec0n0mically, strengthen legal pr0tecti0ns, and challenge patriarchal n0rms are crucial in creating a safer and m0re equitable s0ciety f0r all.
Gender justice in India is an 0ng0ing struggle r00ted in c0mplex s0cial, cultural, and ec0n0mic dynamics. Despite pr0gress in s0me areas, w0men c0ntinue t0 face significant challenges, including discriminati0n, vi0lence, and unequal access t0 res0urces and 0pp0rtunities. Achieving gender justice requires addressing systemic inequalities and pr0m0ting the full realizati0n 0f w0men's rights acr0ss all sect0rs 0f s0ciety.6
Legal Framew0rk: India has enacted vari0us laws and p0licies aimed at pr0m0ting gender equality and pr0tecting w0men's rights. These include laws addressing vi0lence against w0men, such as the Pr0tecti0n 0f W0men fr0m D0mestic Vi0lence Act and the Sexual Harassment 0f W0men at W0rkplace (Preventi0n, Pr0hibiti0n and
6 Monica Chawla, Gender Justice- Women and Law in India, (Deep and Deep Publications, 2016)
Redressal) Act. H0wever, effective implementati0n and enf0rcement remain key challenges.
Vi0lence Against W0men: Gender-based vi0lence remains a pervasive issue in India, enc0mpassing vari0us f0rms such as d0mestic vi0lence, sexual assault, d0wry-related vi0lence, and h0n0r killings. Despite legislative measures, s0cial n0rms and attitudes 0ften perpetuate a culture 0f impunity f0r perpetrat0rs and disc0urage surviv0rs fr0m seeking justice.
Educati0n and Empl0yment: Access t0 educati0n and empl0yment 0pp0rtunities is crucial f0r pr0m0ting gender equality and emp0wering w0men. While strides have been made in increasing w0men's literacy and w0rkf0rce participati0n, disparities persist, particularly in rural and marginalized c0mmunities. Addressing barriers t0 educati0n and empl0yment, including gender stere0types and lack 0f infrastructure, is essential f0r advancing gender justice.
Health and Repr0ductive Rights: W0men's health and repr0ductive rights are fundamental aspects 0f gender justice. Ensuring access t0 aff0rdable healthcare, repr0ductive services, and inf0rmati0n emp0wers w0men t0 make inf0rmed decisi0ns ab0ut their b0dies and lives. Eff0rts t0 address maternal m0rtality, family planning, and repr0ductive healthcare must pri0ritize the needs 0f marginalized w0men.
P0litical Participati0n and Representati0n: W0men's participati0n in p0litics and decisi0n-making pr0cesses is crucial f0r achieving gender-resp0nsive g0vernance and p0licies. While India has made pr0gress in increasing w0men's representati0n in l0cal g0vernment thr0ugh reservati0ns f0r w0men in panchayats and municipal b0dies, w0men remain underrepresented in higher levels 0f g0vernment and face barriers t0 meaningful participati0n.
Cultural and S0cial N0rms: Cultural beliefs and s0cial n0rms play a significant r0le in shaping attitudes t0wards gender r0les and relati0ns. Addressing harmful stere0types, patriarchal practices, and discriminat0ry cust0ms is essential f0r pr0m0ting gender
justice. Engaging c0mmunities, religi0us leaders, and media in challenging gender n0rms and pr0m0ting gender equality is critical f0r f0stering s0cial change.
Intersecti0nality: Rec0gnizing the intersecting identities and experiences 0f w0men is essential f0r inclusive appr0aches t0 gender justice. W0men fr0m marginalized c0mmunities, including Dalits, Adivasis, LGBTQ+ individuals, and religi0us min0rities, face c0mp0unded f0rms 0f discriminati0n and marginalizati0n. Intersecti0nal appr0aches t0 p0licy-making and pr0gramming are necessary t0 address the diverse needs and realities 0f all w0men.
CHAPTER 3
STATUTORY PROVISIONS ON VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA
In India, marriage, and family life h0ld significant imp0rtance, with the act 0f marrying s0me0ne and leading a c0ntented life t0gether regarded as sacred and fundamental in 0ne's existence. Be that as it may, in fact, India is am0ng th0se nati0ns which have c0untless arguments including vi0lence against wedded w0men al0ng with 0ffenses c0nnecting with end0wment. Cases including d0mestic vi0lence and end0wment are being enlisted at an expanded speed when c0ntrasted with the last ten years. The primary reas0n f0r this phen0men0n is the lack 0f a supp0rtive envir0nment in many h0useh0lds, leading t0 strained relati0nships and mistreatment 0f individuals, particularly w0men. In such situati0ns, w0men 0ften bec0me victims 0f vari0us f0rms 0f abuse and inhumane treatment. In India, legal framew0rks such as the IPC and 0ther enactments like the D0wry Pr0hibiti0n Act and the Pr0tecti0n 0f W0men fr0m D0mestic Vi0lence Act, 2005, aim t0 safeguard the rights 0f w0men, especially married w0men, and pr0tect them fr0m vari0us 0ffenses that have physical and psych0l0gical impacts.7
Causing hurt, injury 0r risk t0 life, appendage, wellbeing, security 0r pr0sperity, whether mental 0r physical.
Inflicting damage, injury, 0r risk t0 the w0man with an aim t0 pressure her 0r s0me
0ther individual c0nnected with her t0 fulfill any need f0r share.
"Actual maltreatment" inc0rp0rates hurt 0f any s0rt. Attack, criminal terr0rizing and criminal p0wer.8
"Sexual abuse" enc0mpasses behavi0rs 0f a sexual nature, including f0rced sexual
7 Goel, Shivam, The “Shared Household Argument & Other Fundamentals ILJ (2019).
8 https://indiankanoon.org/doc/542601/ (visited on 6th March 2024)
interc0urse, c0mpelling the victim t0 view p0rn0graphy 0r 0ther explicit c0ntent, c0ercing a w0man int0 entertaining 0thers sexually, and any 0ther acts that are sexually demeaning, humiliating, 0r vi0lative 0f 0ne's dignity.
Ec0n0mic abuse against w0men is a f0rm 0f c0ntr0l and manipulati0n whereby an individual restricts a w0man's access t0 ec0n0mic res0urces, thereby limiting her financial independence and aut0n0my. This inv0lves c0ntr0lling a w0man's inc0me, limiting her access t0 m0ney, 0r withh0lding financial res0urces alt0gether. This might include c0nfiscating pay checks, preventing access t0 bank acc0unts, 0r demanding an acc0unt 0f every penny spent.
Perpetrat0rs may prevent w0men fr0m pursuing educati0n 0r empl0yment 0pp0rtunities, thus hindering their ability t0 earn inc0me and achieve financial independence. This can inv0lve acti0ns such as undermining a w0man's j0b 0r academic perf0rmance, creating 0bstacles t0 advancement, 0r pressuring her t0 quit her j0b 0r dr0p 0ut 0f sch00l. This includes f0rcing w0men t0 w0rk in expl0itative c0nditi0ns, c0mpelling them t0 take 0n debt, 0r c0ercing them int0 financial agreements that are disadvantage0us t0 them. Perpetrat0rs may use ec0n0mic res0urces as leverage t0 manipulate 0r c0erce w0men int0 c0mplying with their demands 0r staying in abusive relati0nships.Preventing access t0 financial inf0rmati0n: This inv0lves withh0lding inf0rmati0n ab0ut finances, such as inc0me, savings, 0r investments, thereby leaving w0men uninf0rmed and vulnerable.9
The maxim "D0mestic Vi0lence" signifies any act, exclusi0n 0r c0mmissi0n 0r lead 0f the resp0ndent will add up t0 d0mestic vi0lence in specific c0nditi0ns. It inc0rp0rates causing actual maltreatment, sexual maltreatment, verbal and pr0f0und 0r m0netary maltreatment which are likewise made sense 0f under the meaning 0f d0mestic vi0lence. In deciding if any act, 0versight 0r c0mmissi0n 0r direct 0f the resp0ndent c0mprises "D0mestic Vi0lence" the general facts and c0nditi0ns 0f the case will be a directing fact0r. Secti0n 3 0f the law says any act/direct/exclusi0n/c0mmissi0n that damages 0r harms 0r can p0ssibly hurt 0r harm
9 Bhattacharya R Behind the close doors: Domestic violence in India.98 ( SAGE Publications, 2013)
will be c0nsidered 'd0mestic vi0lence'. Indeed, even a s0litary act 0f c0mmissi0n 0r 0versight might c0mprise d0mestic vi0lence. As such, w0men d0n't need t0 experience a drawn 0ut time 0f maltreatment pri0r t0 taking resp0nse t0 the law. The law says any meaning of d0mestic violence is a human rights infringement. Further, the law subtleties the vari0us types 0f vi0lence l00ked by w0men, and guarantees that such understandings are n0t left exclusively t0 the tact 0f the app0inted auth0rities.10
Fr0m the statement 0f articles and reas0ns appended t0 the act sh0ws that aim 0f Act is t0 shield w0men fr0m d0mestic vi0lence l00ked by them in their families. Candidate under this Act will be just w0man. A significant element 0f the said milest0ne regulati0n is a W0man's all in all c0rrect t0 get l0dging 0r elective c0nvenience. It acc0mm0dates a w0man's m0re right than wr0ng t0 live in the marital 0r shared family, h0wever she has n0t having any title 0r directly in the family. This right is g0tten by h0me request which is passed by C0urt. This Act d0esn't rec0gnize wedded w0men and w0man wh0 are in live in c0nnecti0ns. It gives equivalent pr0tecti0n t0 b0th fr0m maltreatment 0n acc0unt 0f their acc0mplices.
PWDVA, 2005, was enacted in India t0 pr0vide c0mprehensive legal pr0tecti0n t0 w0men wh0 are victims 0f d0mestic vi0lence. The 0bjectives and sc0pe 0f the Act include:
The primary 0bjective 0f the Act is t0 prevent d0mestic vi0lence against w0men and pr0vide effective remedies f0r victims. The Act defines d0mestic vi0lence br0adly t0 include n0t 0nly physical abuse but als0 em0ti0nal, verbal, sexual, and ec0n0mic abuse. It rec0gnizes that vi0lence against w0men can take vari0us f0rms within
10 Ibid
d0mestic relati0nships. 11
The Act pr0vides f0r vari0us pr0tecti0n 0rders that can be issued by the c0urt t0 ensure the safety and well-being 0f the victim. These 0rders may include restraining 0rders, residence 0rders, 0r 0rders pr0hibiting the 0ffender fr0m c0ntacting 0r harassing the victim. The Act mandates the pr0visi0n 0f shelter h0mes 0r safe h0uses f0r w0men wh0 are victims 0f d0mestic vi0lence and need a safe place t0 stay away fr0m the abuser.
The Act ensures that victims have access t0 legal aid and supp0rt services t0 help them navigate the legal pr0cess and seek redressal f0r the vi0lence they have experienced. The Act rec0gnizes d0mestic vi0lence as a criminal 0ffense and pr0vides f0r penalties against 0ffenders. It aims t0 h0ld perpetrat0rs acc0untable f0r their acti0ns and deter future instances 0f vi0lence.
In additi0n t0 criminal pr0ceedings, the Act als0 pr0vides f0r civil remedies such as c0mpensati0n f0r injuries 0r damages caused by the vi0lence.
Awareness and Educati0n: The Act emphasizes the imp0rtance 0f raising awareness ab0ut d0mestic vi0lence and educating the public ab0ut its c0nsequences. It pr0m0tes a s0cietal shift t0wards zer0 t0lerance f0r vi0lence against w0men.
The sc0pe 0f the Act is br0ad and c0vers vari0us aspects 0f d0mestic vi0lence, aiming t0 pr0vide h0listic pr0tecti0n and supp0rt t0 w0men wh0 are victims 0f such vi0lence. It rec0gnizes the rights 0f w0men t0 live free fr0m vi0lence and seeks t0 emp0wer them t0 assert th0se rights effectively.12
The right t0 be free 0f vi0lence: Vari0us regi0nal and internati0nal human rights treaties and c0nventi0ns include pr0visi0ns safeguarding the right t0 be free fr0m vi0lence, highlighting its universal significance and the 0bligati0n 0f states t0 pr0tect individuals fr0m such harm.
11 Ritu Singh, “Domestic violence act “shield or weapon of an Indian women” Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 165-169 (2018)
12 Gayathri M, “An Empirical Study on the Existing Legal Framework against Domestic Violence in India”, JPSPA 6(2017)
The right t0 be free fr0m vi0lence is integral t0 the br0ader framew0rk 0f human rights, dignity, and equality. Eff0rts t0 c0mbat vi0lence against individuals, particularly marginalized and vulnerable gr0ups, are essential f0r building s0cieties that uph0ld human rights principles and ensure the well-being and safety 0f all individuals.
The right t0 dignity: In Ahmedabad Municipal C0rp0rati0n v. Nawab Khan Gulab Khan, the fact that the right t0 life included in its ambit the right t0 live with human dignity, basing its 0pini0n 0n a h0st 0f cases that had been decided in fav0ur 0f this pr0p0siti0n. This case, decided by the Supreme C0urt 0f India, highlighted the imp0rtance 0f pr0tecting the dignity 0f individuals, particularly th0se fr0m marginalized c0mmunities. The Supreme C0urt, in its judgment, emphasized the right t0 dignity as a fundamental aspect 0f human rights. It held that denying s0me0ne the 0pp0rtunity t0 lead a life 0f dignity vi0lates their c0nstituti0nal rights. The C0urt rec0gnized the inherent dignity 0f all individuals and c0ndemned the practice 0f manual scavenging, n0ting its inc0mpatibility with the principles 0f equality and human dignity enshrined in the Indian C0nstituti0n.
The judgment undersc0red the 0bligati0n 0f the state t0 take affirmative acti0n t0 pr0tect the dignity 0f marginalized and vulnerable gr0ups and t0 eradicate practices that perpetuate discriminati0n and s0cial exclusi0n. The C0urt directed the AMC t0 pr0vide permanent empl0yment t0 manual scavengers and t0 take pr0active measures t0 rehabilitate and uplift them, ensuring their right t0 lead a life 0f dignity.
This case exemplifies the judiciary's r0le in uph0lding and pr0m0ting human dignity and undersc0res the imp0rtance 0f eliminating practices that undermine the dignity 0f individuals, particularly th0se fr0m marginalized backgr0unds. It serves as a landmark decisi0n in the struggle f0r human rights and s0cial justice in India.
The right t0 shelter: In Chameli Singh v. State 0f U.P13, The Supreme C0urt, in its judgment, reaffirmed that the right t0 shelter is an essential c0mp0nent 0f the right t0 life and dignity guaranteed by Article 21. The C0urt emphasized that shelter is n0t
13 Chameli Singh vs. State of UP, (1996) 2 SCC 549
merely a physical structure but enc0mpasses vari0us elements necessary f0r a dignified life, including adequate living space, basic amenities, and pr0tecti0n fr0m the elements. The judgment rec0gnized the precari0us situati0n 0f slum dwellers wh0 0ften live in substandard h0using c0nditi0ns and lack access t0 essential services. It emphasized the state's 0bligati0n t0 ensure the pr0visi0n 0f adequate h0using and t0 pr0tect vulnerable c0mmunities fr0m arbitrary evicti0ns. The C0urt held that evicti0ns cann0t be carried 0ut with0ut pr0per rehabilitati0n measures in place t0 ensure that the affected individuals are n0t rendered h0meless. It directed the state g0vernment t0 f0rmulate a c0mprehensive p0licy f0r slum redevel0pment and rehabilitati0n, taking int0 acc0unt the needs and interests 0f slum dwellers. 14
One 0f the maj0r l00ph0les is the inc0nsistent implementati0n 0f the Act acr0ss different states and regi0ns. Lack 0f awareness am0ng law enf0rcement agencies, judicial 0fficials, and the public 0ften leads t0 underrep0rting and inadequate resp0nse t0 cases 0f d0mestic vi0lence.
The Act primarily f0cuses 0n pr0tecting w0men fr0m d0mestic vi0lence, which may leave 0ther vulnerable gr0ups, such as men, children, and elderly individuals, inadequately pr0tected. D0mestic vi0lence against these gr0ups may n0t receive the same level 0f attenti0n and supp0rt under the Act. Despite the pr0visi0n f0r shelter h0mes and supp0rt services f0r victims 0f d0mestic vi0lence, there is a sh0rtage 0f such facilities, especially in rural areas. This leaves many victims with0ut access t0 safe acc0mm0dati0n and essential supp0rt services.
The legal pr0cedures inv0lved in 0btaining pr0tecti0n 0rders and 0ther reliefs under the Act can be lengthy and cumbers0me, leading t0 delays in pr0viding timely relief t0 victims. This may disc0urage victims fr0m seeking legal rec0urse 0r rep0rting incidents 0f d0mestic vi0lence.
14 Kumari, P. V. “Harassed husband challenges Domestic Violence Act”. The Times of India , (2013)
While the Act pr0vides f0r c0unseling and rehabilitati0n services f0r victims 0f d0mestic vi0lence, there is a lack 0f adequate infrastructure and trained pr0fessi0nals t0 pr0vide these services effectively. This limits the effectiveness 0f interventi0ns aimed at addressing the r00t causes 0f vi0lence and supp0rting victims in their rec0very.
Ec0n0mic abuse, which is a c0mm0n f0rm 0f d0mestic vi0lence, is n0t addressed c0mprehensively under the Act. Victims may c0ntinue t0 face ec0n0mic dependence 0n their abusers, making it difficult f0r them t0 leave abusive situati0ns and rebuild their lives independently.
There is a lack 0f c0mprehensive data c0llecti0n and research 0n d0mestic vi0lence, which hampers evidence-based p0licymaking and pr0gram planning. Better data c0llecti0n mechanisms are needed t0 understand the prevalence, patterns, and underlying fact0rs c0ntributing t0 d0mestic vi0lence..
Secti0n 498 A: IPC
Secti0n 498A 0f IPC deals with the 0ffense 0f cruelty by a husband 0r his relatives t0wards a married w0man. It is a pr0visi0n aimed at pr0tecting married w0men fr0m harassment and cruelty inflicted up0n them by their husbands 0r in-laws.
Definiti0n 0f Offense: Secti0n 498A defines cruelty as any wilful c0nduct that is likely t0 drive a w0man t0 c0mmit suicide 0r cause her grave injury t0 her life, limb, 0r mental health. This includes harassment 0r t0rture f0r d0wry, directly 0r indirectly.
Punishment: The 0ffense under Secti0n 498A is c0gnizable, n0n-bailable, and n0n- c0mp0undable. Up0n c0nvicti0n, the accused can be punished with impris0nment f0r a term which may extend t0 three years and shall als0 be liable t0 a fine.
Sc0pe 0f the Offense: The 0ffense under Secti0n 498A can be c0mmitted by the husband 0r his relatives, including his parents, siblings, 0r any 0ther family
members. The 0ffense is n0t limited t0 physical cruelty but als0 includes mental and em0ti0nal abuse.
D0wry Harassment: While the pr0visi0n primarily aims t0 address cruelty against married w0men, it specifically includes harassment f0r d0wry as a f0rm 0f cruelty. D0wry harassment refers t0 the demand f0r d0wry 0r harassment related t0 d0wry, which is punishable under this secti0n.
Legal Pr0cedure: C0mplaints under Secti0n 498A can be filed by the victim w0man herself, her relatives, 0r any 0ther pers0n wh0 has kn0wledge 0f the 0ffense. The p0lice are required t0 register a First Inf0rmati0n Rep0rt (FIR) up0n receiving such a c0mplaint and investigate the matter acc0rdingly.
Misuse C0ncerns: Secti0n 498A has 0ften been criticized f0r its p0tential misuse, where false allegati0ns are made t0 harass the husband and his family members. The Supreme C0urt 0f India has issued guidelines t0 prevent the misuse 0f this pr0visi0n and has emphasized the need f0r a fair and impartial investigati0n in such cases.
Secti0n 498A serves as an imp0rtant legal safeguard f0r married w0men against cruelty and harassment in matrim0nial relati0nships. H0wever, c0ncerns regarding its misuse have pr0mpted calls f0r ref0rm and stricter enf0rcement 0f guidelines t0 ensure justice f0r all parties inv0lved.15
In the case 0f Krishna Bhatacharjee vs Sarathi Ch0udhury16, The c0urt has established guidelines f0r handling cases under Secti0n 498A 0f the Indian Penal C0de t0 ensure fairness and justice. These guidelines include:
Rec0gnizing the Aggrieved Pers0n's Situati0n: C0urts must c0nsider the challenging circumstances under which the aggrieved pers0n has appr0ached the c0urt. They sh0uld be mindful 0f the vulnerability and helplessness 0ften experienced by victims 0f d0mestic vi0lence.
15 Ibid
16 Krishna Bhatacharjee vs Sarathi Choudhury CA No 1545 of 2015
Scrutinizing Facts Th0r0ughly: C0urts sh0uld th0r0ughly examine all aspects 0f the case fr0m different perspectives. They must carefully assess the validity 0f the resp0ndent's arguments aimed at dismissing the grievances 0f the aggrieved pers0n, ensuring that legal and factual accuracy is maintained.
Uph0lding Truth and Delivering Justice: The primary 0bjective 0f the c0urt sh0uld be t0 uph0ld truth and ensure pr0per justice is served. Decisi0ns sh0uld be made impartially and with the aim 0f pr0viding fair 0utc0mes f0r all parties inv0lved.
Av0iding Hasty Dismissals: Bef0re dismissing a petiti0n 0n gr0unds 0f maintainability, the c0urt sh0uld ensure that the aggrieved pers0n's right t0 have their case adjudicated is n0t c0mpr0mised. Hasty dismissals sh0uld be av0ided, and eff0rts sh0uld be made t0 address the merits 0f the case th0r0ughly.
At the p0int when the inquiry at issue is whether an individual is liable 0f d0wry death 0f a lady and the pr00f unveils that preceding her death she was 0ppressed by such individual t0 brutality and additi0nally badgering f0r, 0r regarding, any interest f0r d0wry's. 113B, gives that the c0urt will assume that such individual had caused d0wry death. Obvi0usly, if there is evidence 0f the individual having deliberately caused her death that w0uld pull in s. 302, IPC17.
Where the arraignment had the 0pti0n t0 dem0nstrate that the expired lady was m0st recently seen alive in the 0rganizati0n 0f the den0unced, she being right n0w in her unc0mm0n c0nsiderati0n and auth0rity, that there was a s0lid th0ught pr0cess in the wr0ngd0ing and that the death being referred t0 was unnatural and maniacal, it was held that by ethicalness 0f the arrangement in S.106 0f the Evidence Act the weight 0f indicating the c0nditi0ns 0f the death was 0n the blamed as th0se c0nditi0ns must be uniquely kn0wn t0 him as it were18. Where the death was by strangulati0n and pr00f was accessible t0 sh0w that d0wry was being requested and the blamed sp0use was additi0nally exp0sing his expired wife t0 mercilessness, it was held that the assumpti0n under the secti0n applied with full p0wer making the den0unced 0bligated
17 (1991) 3 SCC 1.
18 1989 Cr LJ (NOC) 12 (P&H).
t0 be indicted under s. 304B, I.P.C19. Secti0n 113B 0f the Evidence Act being pr0cedural, it has been held that it is review in activity20.
Assumpti0n – when might be raised. — The assumpti0n under secti0n 113B will be raised distinctly 0n the c0nfirmati0n 0f the acc0mpanying basics: -
The arrangements 0f this secti0n, albeit 0bligat0ry in nature, essentially charge up0n the c0urt t0 draw such assumpti0n 0f d0wry death 0n evidence 0f c0nditi0ns referenced in that which add up t0 m0ving the 0nus 0n the blamed t0 sh0w that the wedded lady was n0t treated with savagery by her significant 0ther s00n bef0re her death22. In a d0wry death case, it is a c0nditi0n p0int 0f reference t0 the raising 0f the assumpti0n that the expired wedded lady was exp0sed t0 brutality 0r pr0v0cati0n f0r and regarding the interest f0r d0wry s00n bef0re her death23.
Where the realities indicated that a n0nst0p pr0v0cati0n ass0ciated with interest f0r d0wry was 0ccurring straight up t0 the time that the perished lady met her f0lks tw0- days under the steady gaze 0f her death, the c0urt said that it c0uld be expected that badgering existed upt0 a peri0d s00n bef0re her death. There were n0 mediating endeav0rs at a settlement24. The c0urt said that interest f0r d0wry was 0ccurring s00n bef0re her death and in this manner, assumpti0n under the secti0n c0uld be drawn25.
19 AIR 1995 SC 120
20 1992 Cr LJ 2294 (All).
211995 Cr LJ 174 (Ori).
22 1994 Cr LJ 3472 (P&H).
23 1993 Cr LJ 2636 (All).
24 2000 Cri Lj 2993.
25 2001 Cri LJ 4417 (All).
The basic elements 0f 304 B26 are
26 (2012) 5 SCALE 311
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
In India, various statutory provisions have been enacted to address violence against women, aiming to provide legal protection, support, and justice to survivors.
One of the notable effects of statutory provisions is the increased awareness of women's rights and legal protections against violence. These laws have empowered women to speak out against abuse and seek recourse through legal channels. For example, the Domestic Violence Act has provided survivors with civil remedies and support services, offering a pathway to safety and justice.
Additionally, legislative amendments such as those introduced in the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, have led to stricter penalties for sexual offenses and expanded the definition of rape to be more inclusive. This has signaled a stronger commitment to holding perpetrators accountable and providing survivors with greater legal recourse.
However, despite these advancements, the effectiveness of statutory provisions is hampered by systemic challenges. Implementation gaps, including limited awareness of legal rights, corruption, and inadequate infrastructure, often hinder survivors' access to justice and support services. Furthermore, social stigma and victim-blaming attitudes continue to deter survivors from reporting incidents of violence and seeking help.
Intersectional discrimination further exacerbates the challenges faced by marginalized women, who may experience multiple forms of oppression based on factors such as caste, religion, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. Legal frameworks must address these intersecting vulnerabilities and ensure inclusive access to justice and support services for all women.
Despite the existence of laws, there is often a gap between legislation and implementation. Limited awareness of legal rights, corruption, inadequate
infrastructure, and cultural barriers can hinder survivors' access to justice and support services.
Deep-rooted social norms and stigma surrounding issues of violence against women can discourage survivors from reporting incidents and seeking help. Victim-blaming attitudes and pressure to preserve family honor further compound the challenges faced by survivors.
In conclusion, while statutory provisions play a crucial role in combating violence against women in India, comprehensive efforts are needed to address the systemic factors that perpetuate gender-based violence. This includes raising awareness, promoting gender equality, strengthening law enforcement mechanisms, and providing holistic support to survivors. Only through a multi-sectoral and rights-based approach can India effectively tackle the pervasive issue of violence against women and create a society where all individuals can live free from fear and discrimination.
legal aid and support services to survivors, including counselling, shelter, and rehabilitation programs.
