A STUDY ON ROLE OF COURT DECISIONS ON IMPACTING SOCIAL CHANGE By: - SAMRUDDHI SUNIL JADHAV

A STUDY ON ROLE OF COURT DECISIONS ON IMPACTING SOCIAL CHANGE

Authored By: - SAMRUDDHI SUNIL JADHAV

First year law student of BA. LLB. (Hons. in adjudication and justicing)

Maharashtra National Law University, Nagpur.

 

ABSTRACT

This research paper examines the role of court decisions in impacting social change. The paper analyzes various court decisions and their impact on the legal and social landscape of society. Through a thorough review of case law, the paper identifies patterns in the way court decisions have influenced social change. The paper examines landmark court cases and their impact on legislative and social changes, as well as the potential limitations and challenges faced by courts in effecting social change. The study finds that court decisions  have played a significant role in shaping public opinion and legislative change on issues such as civil rights, gender equality, reproductive rights and same-sex marriage. The research finds that court decisions can serve as a powerful tool for promoting social change, but that their impact is often limited by political and social factors. It discusses alternative strategies for achieving social justice. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the complex relationship between court decisions and social change, and offers guidance for those seeking to effect meaningful change in society.

Contents

ABSTRACT..

INTRODUCTION..

HYPOTHESIS.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..

LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE..

COURT DECISIONS AND SOCIAL CHANGE..

LIMITATIONS OF RELYING ON COURT DECISIONS AS A MEANS OF PROMOTING SOCIAL CHANGE  

VARIOUS LEGAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR VARYING EFFECTS ON SOCIAL CHANGE..

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE IMPACT OF COURT DECISIONS ON SOCIAL CHANGE..

LAW’S FOOTPRINTS TOWARDS SOCIAL CHANGE IN INDIA..

CONCLUSION..

REFERENCES.

 

INTRODUCTION

Social transformation is the term used to describe any departure from the conventional or accepted way of life. The term "social change" refers to changes within society overall. Society, in the words of MacIver, is "network of social relationships."[1] Social change has an impact on these social connections. Both law and social transformations place a great focus on studies of social prob, changes to those problem, and their remedy through legislative and judicial processes.[2] These two concepts are very different from one another. After the Indian Constitution was put into effect in 1950, India was a "Republic" and a nation with a federal structure. In a nation with numerous states divided by language and culture, multiculturalism is more apparent than it once was. The Constitution expressed the wishes of the people while establishing the "Rule of Law," competent governance, and multiculturalism.[3] The proverb "Law Changes Society" states that society must change to comply with the rules of the law. When an aberration occurs, it is brought before the courts, which then uses rule of law principle to change the way law is currently practiced. Law has traditionally been thought of as a means of bringing about social change. Justice has steadily paved the way for social justice through an active legal system and creative jurisprudence that actively right historical and modern wrongs.[4]

Courts have long been regarded as a key instrument for bringing about social change. Throughout history, court decisions have played a significant role in shaping society and impacting the lives of people around the world. In recent times, we have witnessed several landmark judgments that have had a far-reaching impact on society, ranging from issues related to civil rights and liberties to economic and environmental policies.

This research paper aims to explore the role of court decisions in impacting social change. Specifically, the paper will examine how judicial decisions have influenced social policies, laws, and attitudes towards various issues over time. By analyzing the impact of court decisions on social change, this study hopes to shed light on the role that courts can play in shaping a more just and equitable society.

 

HYPOTHESIS

Court decisions that challenge the status quo and promote progressive values are more likely to have a significant impact on social change than those that reinforce existing norms and values. The effectiveness of court decisions in promoting social change is influenced by various factors, such as the political context, public opinion, and the strength of social movements. Court decisions that are implemented through institutional and policy changes are more likely to lead to sustained social change than those that rely solely on symbolic or rhetorical changes.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the historical examples of court decisions that have had a significant impact on social change?
2. How do different legal systems and court structures affect the role of courts in promoting social change, and what are the implications for achieving social justice?
3. What is the relationship between court decisions and social movements, and how do they interact to bring about social change?
4. How do public opinion, media coverage, and political context influence the impact of court decisions on social change?
5. What are the potential limitations of relying on court decisions as a means of promoting social change, and what alternative strategies might be more effective?

 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study will use a qualitative research approach, which entails analyzing texts to draw the necessary findings. As a result, the goals and objectives of the research are exploratory. Data for this study will be gathered from sources including case studies, records, and documents. Secondary sources including observations, books, papers, journals, blogs, and other publications will also be used by the researcher. The entire project adheres to the Doctrinal Method of study, which prevents the presentation or collection of static data. In this study, descriptive research is mostly used.

 

LAW AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Social change refers to the significant alteration of social structures, institutions, and cultural norms over time. It is a process by which society transforms its economic, political, and cultural systems, and is often driven by social movements, technological advancements, and political reforms. Social change can occur at the local, national, or global level and can take many forms, such as changes in social attitudes, behavior patterns, and power structures. It can be intentional or unintentional and can be either positive or negative in its effects, depending on the perspective of those affected by it. Social change can bring about important improvements in areas such as civil rights, gender equality, environmental protection, and economic opportunity, but can also create new challenges and unintended consequences.

 

Law and social change are deeply interconnected. The law is often seen as a tool for promoting social change by regulating behavior, setting standards, and establishing legal precedents. Under a centralized state political system with advanced technology and communication infrastructure, legal innovation is believed to be able to affect social change.[5] Legal decisions and interpretations can have a significant impact on society by shaping public attitudes, influencing public policy, and enforcing social norms. At the same time, social change can also influence the law. Social movements and changing cultural norms can lead to changes in the law, as policymakers respond to shifting societal expectations and demands. Legal reforms can address issues such as discrimination, inequality, and injustice, and can promote greater social cohesion and human rights protections. However, the relationship between law and social change is not always straightforward. The law can be slow to adapt to social change, and entrenched power structures can impede legal reforms. Additionally, legal changes alone may not be enough to bring about lasting social change, and broader societal shifts may be necessary to address underlying social and economic disparities.

The law can play a significant role in social change. The government can enact new laws to promote social change. For example, the civil rights movement led to the creation of laws that prohibited racial discrimination in employment, education, and housing. The government can amend existing laws to promote social change. For example, the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine and helped to desegregate schools. This case declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, effectively ending the legal basis for segregation in the United States. This decision paved the way for the Civil Rights Movement, and helped to promote greater racial equality and integration. The government can enforce existing laws to promote social change. For example, the Department of Justice can investigate and prosecute cases of discrimination. Legal precedents can also promote social change. For example, the Supreme Court's decision in Roe v. Wade established a woman's right to choose whether to have an abortion. This Supreme Court decision legalized abortion in the United States, giving women the right to make choices about their own bodies. The decision was a major victory for women's rights and reproductive freedom. The law can be used to educate the public about social issues. For example, laws mandating sex education in schools can help to promote awareness of reproductive rights. People can challenge existing laws through the courts to promote social change. For example, the landmark case of Loving v. Virginia[6] struck down laws that prohibited interracial marriage. This case struck down laws that prohibited interracial marriage in the United States. The decision invalidated laws that had been in place in many states for centuries, and helped to pave the way for greater acceptance of interracial relationships and marriages. A supreme court case of Obergefell v. Hodges[7] (2015) legalized same-sex marriage in the United States, giving LGBTQ+ individuals the same rights as heterosexual couples. The decision was a significant step forward for LGBTQ+ rights, and helped to promote greater acceptance and equality for the LGBTQ+ community. The supreme court decision of Plessy v. Ferguson[8] (1896) upheld the legality of racial segregation in public facilities, establishing the "separate but equal" doctrine. This decision was eventually overturned by Brown v. Board of Education, but it had a significant impact on social attitudes and perpetuated racial discrimination and inequality for decades.

 

In each of these cases, court decisions had a profound impact on social change, either by promoting greater equality and justice, or by perpetuating discrimination and inequality. These decisions illustrate the important role that courts can play in shaping social norms and promoting progress. Overall, the law can be a powerful tool for promoting social change. It can be used to establish and enforce rights, challenge discrimination, and educate the public about important social issues.

 

COURT DECISIONS AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Court decisions and social movements can have a complex and mutually reinforcing relationship when it comes to bringing about social change. Social movements often emerge in response to perceived injustices, and their efforts to effect change can take a number of forms, including protests, civil disobedience, and public education campaigns. One of the ways in which social movements can achieve their goals is by seeking legal remedies through the courts. In some cases, court decisions can directly advance the goals of social movements. For example, landmark court cases such as Brown v. Board of Education, which declared segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional, or Obergefell v. Hodges, which legalized same-sex marriage in the United States, were the result of years of activism by social movements. In these cases, court decisions provided legal validation for the efforts of social movements and helped to institutionalize their goals. However, court decisions can also be influenced by social movements. For instance, the legal challenges brought by civil rights activists during the 1950s and 1960s played a crucial role in shifting public opinion and creating a climate in which court decisions like Brown v. Board of Education could be made. Similarly, the LGBTQ rights movement used public education campaigns and other forms of activism to build support for legal recognition of same-sex marriage, which ultimately led to the landmark Obergefell decision. In many cases, the relationship between court decisions and social movements is iterative and ongoing. Social movements can use court decisions to advance their goals, but they can also continue to push for further legal changes and to challenge existing laws and policies. In turn, court decisions can help to legitimize social movements and provide a legal framework for their ongoing efforts to effect change.

Court decisions and social movements can interact in several ways to bring about social change. The relationship between them can be complex and multifaceted, with each influencing and reinforcing the other. Court decisions can affirm the goals of social movements. Landmark court decisions can provide legal validation for the efforts of social movements and help to institutionalize their goals. Social movements can use court decisions to advance their goals. Social movements can use court decisions to press for further legal changes and to challenge existing laws and policies. Court decisions can also be influenced by the efforts of social movements to shift public opinion and create a climate in which legal change is possible. For example, the legal challenges brought by civil rights activists during the 1950s and 1960s played a crucial role in shifting public opinion and creating a climate in which the Supreme Court was willing to declare segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education. Social movements can use court decisions to build momentum and mobilize supporters. Court decisions and social movements can interact in a variety of ways to bring about social change. While court decisions can affirm the goals of social movements, social movements can also use court decisions to advance their goals and challenge existing laws and policies. Moreover, the relationship between court decisions and social movements can be iterative and ongoing, with each influencing and reinforcing the other.

 

Court decisions that challenge the status quo and promote progressive values are more likely to have a significant impact on social change than those that reinforce existing norms and values. This is because such decisions can create a legal precedent that promotes social change by establishing new rights, expanding existing ones, or prohibiting discriminatory practices. On the other hand, court decisions that reinforce existing norms and values may not have the same impact on social change. In fact, such decisions may even hinder progress by upholding discriminatory practices or limiting rights. Court decisions that are implemented through institutional and policy changes are more likely to lead to sustained social change than those that rely solely on symbolic or rhetorical changes. While symbolic or rhetorical changes can be important in promoting awareness and changing attitudes, they may not lead to tangible changes in policy or practice. In contrast, court decisions that are implemented through institutional and policy changes can have a more direct impact on social change by changing the way institutions and organizations operate. For example, if a court decision strikes down a discriminatory law or policy, it can lead to institutional changes that promote greater equality and inclusion. This could include changes in hiring practices, education policies, or healthcare services, among other things. These changes can have a lasting impact on society by promoting greater access to opportunities and reducing discrimination. Moreover, implementing court decisions through institutional and policy changes can help to ensure that the court decision is more than just a symbolic gesture. By making concrete changes to policy and practice, the impact of the court decision can be sustained over time, even if there are changes in public opinion or political leadership.

 

LIMITATIONS OF RELYING ON COURT DECISIONS AS A MEANS OF PROMOTING SOCIAL CHANGE

Relying solely on court decisions as a means of promoting social change can have several limitations. Court decisions can take years, if not decades, to be made. Even after a court decision is reached, it can take time for it to be implemented. Court decisions are usually made in response to specific cases or controversies and only apply to the parties involved in those cases. They may not have a broad impact on society as a whole. Court decisions only apply within the jurisdiction of the court that made the decision. This means that a decision made by one court may not apply in other parts of the country or the world. Court decisions can be overturned or modified by subsequent courts or legislatures, depending on the political climate and changes in societal values. Court decisions may not have the support of the general public, which can limit their effectiveness in promoting social change.

 

Relying solely on court decisions may not be the most effective way to promote social change. Alternative strategies such as grassroots advocacy, legislative action, public education, and community-based solutions can all play an important role in promoting social change.

 

Grassroots Advocacy: Grassroots advocacy involves organizing individuals and groups at the local level to raise awareness and promote change on a specific issue. This can be an effective way to build public support and put pressure on policymakers to take action.

 

Legislative Action: Legislative action involves passing laws and regulations that promote social change. This can be a faster and more effective way to create lasting change, as laws have the power to apply to a broad range of people and situations.

 

Public Education: Educating the public on social issues and the need for change can help build support for social change. This can be done through media campaigns, public events, and community outreach programs.

 

Community-Based Solutions: Community-based solutions involve working with communities to develop local solutions to social problems. This can be an effective way to address the root causes of social issues and create sustainable change.

VARIOUS LEGAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR VARYING EFFECTS ON SOCIAL CHANGE

Different legal systems and court structures can have a significant impact on the role of courts in promoting social change, and this can have important implications for achieving social justice. Some key factors that can influence the role of courts in promoting social change include the independence of the judiciary, the scope of judicial power, and the level of public confidence in the court system.

In common law systems, such as those found in the United States and the United Kingdom, courts have a relatively high degree of discretion and can play a significant role in shaping the law and promoting social change. This is because courts in common law systems have the power to interpret the law, and their decisions can serve as precedent for future cases. As a result, courts can use their discretion to expand or limit the scope of legal protections and to promote or discourage certain social behaviors.

 

In civil law systems, such as those found in many European countries, courts have a more limited role in promoting social change. This is because civil law systems are based on a code of laws, which leaves less room for judicial discretion. In civil law systems, courts are generally limited to interpreting and applying the law as written, rather than using their discretion to shape the law or promote social change.

 

The level of public confidence in the court system can also affect the role of courts in promoting social change. In countries where the judiciary is independent and respected, courts may be more likely to take an active role in promoting social change. However, in countries where the judiciary is seen as corrupt or biased, courts may be less effective in promoting social change and achieving social justice.

 

Overall, the role of courts in promoting social change can vary widely depending on the legal system and court structure in place. While courts can play an important role in shaping the law and promoting social change, their effectiveness in achieving social justice ultimately depends on a range of factors, including the independence of the judiciary, the scope of judicial power, and the level of public confidence in the court system.

 

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE IMPACT OF COURT DECISIONS ON SOCIAL CHANGE

Public opinion, media coverage, and political context can all have a significant impact on the way court decisions are perceived and implemented, and consequently, on their potential to bring about social change. Below are some of the ways in which these factors can influence the impact of court decisions:

 

Public Opinion: Public opinion can influence the impact of court decisions on social change in a number of ways. When a court decision aligns with prevailing public attitudes and values, it can strengthen the legitimacy of the decision and increase the likelihood of its acceptance and implementation. Conversely, when a court decision goes against public opinion, it can lead to backlash, resistance, and even political backlash against the court. Thus, public opinion can both amplify or undermine the impact of court decisions on social change.

 

Media Coverage: Media coverage can shape public opinion and influence the impact of court decisions on social change. When media outlets cover a court decision in a way that highlights its importance and significance, it can amplify the impact of the decision and bring greater attention to the social issue at stake. Alternatively, media outlets may downplay or misrepresent a court decision, which can limit its impact on social change. Additionally, media coverage can also shape the public perception of the legitimacy of the courts and their decisions, which can have important implications for social change.

 

Political context: The political context in which a court decision is made can also have a significant impact on its potential to bring about social change. In some cases, political actors may actively resist or undermine court decisions, for example, by refusing to allocate the necessary resources to implement them. In other cases, political actors may use court decisions to mobilize support for their own political agendas, or may seek to overturn them through legislative or executive action.

 

LAW’S FOOTPRINTS TOWARDS SOCIAL

CHANGE IN INDIA

The Supreme Court has played a major role in social change though the liberal and proactive interpretation of constitutional provisions. The Indian  Supreme Court has made a substantial contribution to social development by making justice available to the general public, in accordance with sociological legal philosophy. The Indian judiciary has three basic roles: adjudication of rules and resolution of disputes; rule interpretations and interorgan supervision; and regulatory duties over the executive and legislative branches.[9] In accordance with the constitution, the judiciary's most important tool for bringing about and speeding social change is rule interpretation.[10] One of the ways that social change can be effected is through the judiciary's ability to interpret constitutional provisions in a more progressive and liberal and progressive manner as a result of the rise of "Judicial Activism" in the sphere of social functions in contemporary days.[11] The court can also aid in social change by giving new meaning to outdated ideas, which are like big strokes on a vast canvas. This will allow them to be applied to the current state of society.

 

The judiciary has the power to spur social change in the nation in a number of different ways. Among these concerns are social justice with an emphasis on women and children, the fundamental right to life, and public accountability.[12]

 

Court decisions have played an important role in shaping social change throughout Indian history. Here are a few examples:

Champakam Dorairajan Case[13] (1951): This case challenged the Madras government's policy of reserving seats in educational institutions for certain castes and religions. The Supreme Court ruled that such quotas violated the principle of equality enshrined in the Indian Constitution. This decision led to the abolition of caste-based reservations in education and employment, paving the way for greater social mobility and equality.

 

Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala[14] (1973): This case is considered one of the most significant in Indian constitutional history. The Supreme Court ruled that certain fundamental rights were beyond the reach of the Indian Parliament, and that the Constitution could not be amended to abrogate these rights. This decision helped to strengthen the fundamental rights provisions of the Constitution and protect them from arbitrary amendments.

 

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan[15] (1997): This case dealt with sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Supreme Court held that sexual harassment violated the fundamental rights of women to equality and dignity, and laid down guidelines for preventing and redressing such harassment. This decision led to the enactment of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, which provides a framework for addressing sexual harassment in the workplace.

 

The Nirbhaya Case[16] (2012): The brutal gang rape and murder of a young woman in Delhi in 2012 sparked widespread protests and led to the enactment of several legal reforms to address violence against women. The case also led to the establishment of fast-track courts to ensure speedy justice in cases of sexual assault.

 

Naz Foundation v. Government of NCT of Delhi[17] (2009): This case decriminalized consensual homosexual sex between adults. The Supreme Court held that Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code, which criminalized homosexual acts, violated the fundamental rights of individuals to privacy, dignity, and equality. This decision helped to promote greater acceptance of the LGBTQ+ community and challenge the stigma and discrimination faced by them.

 

Sabarimala Temple Entry Case[18] (2018): This case dealt with the exclusion of women of menstruating age from the Sabarimala temple in Kerala. The Supreme Court held that this practice violated the fundamental rights of women to equality and non-discrimination, and lifted the ban on women's entry to the temple. This decision challenged patriarchal attitudes and helped to promote greater gender equality and women's rights.

 

Hindu Succession Act[19] (1956): This law abolished gender discrimination in inheritance rights, giving women the same inheritance rights as men. This law was a significant step towards promoting gender equality in India and challenging patriarchal attitudes.

 

Dowry Prohibition Act[20] (1961): This law made the practice of giving or taking dowry a criminal offence in India. The law was passed to combat the widespread practice of dowry, which had led to violence against women and discrimination. This law helped to bring attention to the issue of dowry and its harmful effects on women.

 

The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act[21] (1989): This law was passed to prevent violence and discrimination against members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in India. The law made caste-based violence and discrimination a criminal offence and provided for harsher penalties for such offences. This law was a significant step towards addressing the discrimination faced by these marginalized communities.

 

Right to Information Act[22] (2005): This law gave citizens the right to access information held by government bodies. This law was a significant step towards promoting transparency and accountability in government, and empowering citizens to hold government bodies accountable.

 

The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act[23] (2019): This law provides for the protection of rights and welfare of transgender persons in India. The law recognizes transgender persons as a third gender and provides for their inclusion in various social welfare schemes. This law was a significant step towards promoting the rights and inclusion of transgender persons in India.

 

Abolition of Sati System: A widow's life being destroyed or interred next to her husband's remains is referred to as sati. Hindus have held becoming a sati in high respect since the beginning of time. Indian social reformer Raja Ram Mohan Roy started opposing these customs in 1812. Society was helpless to halt the behaviour because it was seen as a part of their customs and rituals. There was a statute in place on December 4th, 1829, that might have governed it. Via the issuance of a regulation declaring Sati and the burning of Hindu widows to be crimes subject to prosecution in criminal courts, Governor Lord William Bentick effectively abolished the practise throughout Bengal presidency regions. 17 India after independence struggled to maintain effective control over Sati. The legislature took drastic action by passing the Commission of Sati Act, 1987, which established a special statute for dealing with individuals who aid Sati and made it an exemplary offence punishable by up to the death penalty. In the vast majority of India, it is now an abandoned system.[24]

 

These laws prohibiting sati, child marriage and widow remarriage were put into effect as a result of public opinion. The legislation passed during colonial authority did not fall under the purview of social law. Only social reformers and the general public were interested in these legislation.

In each of these cases, court decisions had a significant impact on social change in India, either by promoting greater equality and justice, or by challenging discriminatory practices and attitudes. These decisions illustrate the important role that courts can play in shaping social norms and promoting progress in India.

 

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, court decisions play a crucial role in promoting social change across different contexts. While the impact of court decisions on social change can vary, depending on the political context, public opinion, and strength of social movements, court decisions that are implemented through institutional and policy changes are more likely to lead to sustained social change than those that rely solely on symbolic or rhetorical changes. Court decisions that challenge the status quo and promote progressive values have a greater potential to promote social change than those that reinforce existing norms and values. However, the effectiveness of court decisions in promoting social change also depends on how they are implemented and enforced, and on the broader political and social context in which they are made.

 

The study of the role of court decisions in impacting social change is important because it highlights the power of legal systems to promote equality, justice, and social progress. By examining the factors that influence the effectiveness of court decisions, policymakers, legal experts, and activists can better understand how to use court decisions as a tool for social change.

 

Moving forward, it is important to continue studying the impact of court decisions on social change and to work towards creating legal systems that promote greater equality and social justice. By doing so, we can help to create a more just and equitable society for all.

 

REFERENCES

1. McCann, M. W. (1994). Rights at work: Pay equity reform and the politics of legal mobilization. University of Chicago Press.
2. Skocpol, T. (1992). Protecting soldiers and mothers: The political origins of social policy in the United States. Harvard University Press.
3. Stone, D. A. (2012). Policy paradox: The art of political decision making. WW Norton & Company.
4. Sunstein, C. R. (2006). Radicals in robes: Why extreme right-wing courts are wrong for America. Basic Books.
5. Tushnet, M. (1999). The new constitutional order. Princeton University Press.
6. Weller, M. (2019). Public policy and the challenges of social change. Routledge.
7. Yamin, A. E., & Gloppen, S. (Eds.). (2011). Litigating health rights: Can courts bring more justice to health? Harvard University Press.
8. Zorn, C. (2003). Understanding supreme court decision making. Cambridge University Press.
9. Dasgupta, S. (2014). Courts and social change in India. Cambridge University Press.
10. Jain, M. P. (2010). The Indian judiciary and socio-economic development. Oxford University Press.
11. Jodhka, S. S. (2017). Caste and politics in India: Changing contours. Routledge.
12. Mani, R. (2007). Beyond postcolonial theory. Annual Review of Anthropology, 36, 1-18.
13. Menon, N., & Bhasin, K. (2018). Seeing like a feminist. Zubaan.
14. Rajagopal, A. (2003). International law from below: Development, social movements, and third world resistance. Cambridge University Press.
15. Sarkar, S. (2016). Judicial activism and human rights in India: Problems and prospects. Routledge.

 

 

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[1] "Maciver, Robert M. ." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 20 Mar. 2023 <https://www.encyclopedia.com>.

[2] Rachel E. Barkow, “Institutional design and the policing of prosecutors: Lessons from Administrative law” 61 Stanford law review, (2009)

[3]  R. Guha and G. C. Spivak (ed), “the prose of counter-insurgency,” 45-87, (Oxford University Press, 1988)

[4] R. Cover, "The Supreme Court, 1982 Term—Foreword: Nomos and Narrative," 4-68 (Harvard Law Review 97, no. 1, 1983)

[5] Law as a Process: An Anthropological Approach (1993) Kegal Paul and Routledge, Falk Moore Sally, London

[6] Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967).

[7] Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. (2015).

[8] Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896)

[9] Sathe, S. (2005). Judicial Activism in India: Origins, Meaning, and Evaluation. Journal of Indian Law and Society, 3(1/2), 1–27

[10] Constitution of India, 1950

[11] Sathe, S. (2005). Judicial Activism in India: Origins, Meaning, and Evaluation. Journal of Indian Law and Society, 3(1/2), 1–27.

[12] Vithal, C. V. (2002). Law, Social Change and Judicial Process in India. Oxford University Press.

[13] The State Of Madras v. Smt. Champakam Dorairajan And Others, AIR 1951 SC 226.

[14] Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, AIR 1973 SC 1461.

[15] Vishaka & Ors v. State of Rajasthan & Ors, (1997) 6 SCC 241.

[16] Bhardwaj, A. (2017). India: Fast Track Courts And Its Efficacy In Tackling Rape Cases. International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies Invention, 6(7), 28-32.

[17] Naz Foundation v. Government of NCT of Delhi, (2009) 160 DLT 277.

[18] Indian Young Lawyers Association & Ors. v. The State of Kerala & Ors., (2018) 11 SCC 1.

[19] The Hindu Succession Act, 1956

[20] The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

[21] The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989.

[22] Right to Information Act, 2005.

[23] The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act, 2019.

[24] Mani, L. (2018). Social Reforms in Modern India: A Brief Review of Some Landmark Reforms. International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development, 2(3), 270–277